ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


1  ^i«S 


LOGICAL    METHOD, 


alexandp:r  bain,  ll.d., 

i'rtoPi:ssoit  of   logic   in    (fii:    t  .vivnitsiT^"  of  aufrobkx. 


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A   BEIEF 


ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 


LOGICAL    METHOD. 


ALEXANDER  BAIN,  LL.D., 

PEOFESSOE  OF  LOGIC   IN  THE  UNIVEKSITY  OF  ABERDEEN. 


NEW  YORK 
HOLT   &    WILLIAMS 


SDUCATdON  tteRt 


PREFACE. 


Grammar  is  a  science,  or  nothing.  It  has  the 
outward  form  of  a  science,  and  its  difficulties 
spring  out  of  its  scientific  character.  There  are 
Definitions  to  be  framed,  Principles  to  be  stated, 
Bules  to  be  prescribed ;  all  which  operations,  if 
entered  upon  at  all,  should  be  carried  out  in  a 
scientific  spirit.  A  loose  way  of  proceeding  in 
this  respect  fails  to  answer  the  ends  of  Grammar, 
and  fails  still  more  as  a  mental  discipline. 

The  chief  peculiarity  in  the  plan  of  the  present 
work  lies  in  anticipating  the  unavoidable  difficul- 
ties of  the  subject  by  a  previous  handling  of  certain 
elementary  notions  (belonging  to  all  science), 
without  which  no  one  can  hope  to  understand  the 
scope  or  method  of  Grammar.  This  preparatory 
portion  explains,  by  the  help  of  familiar  instances, 
first,  the  meanings  of  Individual,  General,  Abstract, 

54  I  lii)9  ' 


IT  PREFACE. 

Class,  Grenus,  Species,  Co-ordinate,  Subordinate, 
and  Definition;  secondly,  the  constituents  of  a 
Preposition,  and  the  kinds  of  Prepositions  ;  and 
lastly,  the  Sentence,  from  which  are  evolved  the 
Parts  of  Speech.  • 

After  such  preliminary  explanations,  I  make  no 
scruple  to  introduce  a  strict  mode  of  defining  the 
Parts  of  Speech.  I  also  exemplify  the  leading 
subdivisions  or  classes  of  each.  Moreover,  I  bring 
forward  at  once  the  equivalent  phrases,  which,  in 
the  case  of  the  Adverb  in  particular,  are  used  more 
frequently  than  single  words.  On  this  method,  the 
Grammatical  parsing  of  a  sentence  directs  attention 
forcibly  to  the  meaning. 

Inflection  is  treated,  if  not  with  the  fulness,  at 
least  with  the  exactness,  of  the  larger  Grammars. 
The  Analysis  of  Sentences,  although  in  a  great 
measure  anticii)ated  by  the  extended  view  taken 
of  the  Parts  of  Speech,  is  explained  and  exempli- 
fied. The  proper  processes  of  Syntax — Concord, 
Government,  and  Order  of  Words^— are  succinctly 
stated;  and  examples  given  of  the  more  usual 
errors. 

The  Key  is  framed  to  assist  the  teacher  in  com- 
prehending the  exact  drift  of  the  Exercises  and  the 
Questions  appended  to  each  head;  but  it  is  not 
confined  to  this.  It  exhausts  the  whole  of  the 
important  grammatical  bearings  of  each  example, 


and  varies  the  points  raised  in  the  Questions.  It  • 
also  includes  a  large  selection  of  additional  ex- 
amples, which  are  commented  on  with  a  view  to 
set  forth  still  farther  the  methods  of  parsing,  and 
to  illustrate  the  constructions  and  idioms  of  the 
language. 

Aberdeen,  Jamuxi-y,  1872. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PREPARATORY    EXPLANATIONS. 

SPEECH,  OE  DISCOURSE. 

PAGE 

Speech  made  up  of  separate  words. — The  different  func- 
tions of  words      ,        , 1 

Subjects  of.  Knowledge      •        • 2 

FIRST    STEP    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 
SUBJECTS,  OR  THINGS  SPOKEX  OF. 

Knowledge  begins   witb  Differences;     tbe    Individual. 
Knowledge   also  involves  Agreements.     Examples 
of  Difference  and  Agreement.    Exercise  1.    Agree- 
ments give  birth  to  Classes.     The  names  of  classes 
V  ar^   General.     Higher    and   Lower    classes.      Ex- 

amples. Exercise  2.  Genus  and  Species :  Co- 
ordinate and  Subordinate.  Definition.  Examples. 
Exercise  3.    Abstract  and  Concrete         ...        8 

SECOND    STEP    OF   KNOWLEDGE. 

WHAT  IS  SAID  OF  A  SUBJECT-PREDICATION. 

Subject  and  Predicate:  Exercise  4.  Propositions, 
Singular  and  General.  Exceptions  to  general  or  uni- 
versal Propositions.    Rules.    Exceptions  to  rales     •      18 


VIU  CONTENTS. 

THE  SENTENCE. 

Examples  of  Short  Sentences.  The  Naked  Sentence. 
Noun  and  Verb.  Enlargements  of  the  naked  sen- 
tence. The  Adjective.  The  Object.  The  Adverb. 
Other  parts  of  the  sentence.  The  Preposition.  The 
Conjunction.    The  Pronoun 21 

Questions  •       .      .       ,       ,       ,       ,       .       .28 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

THE    NOUN. 

Definition        .       .       .       ,        .       .       -       .       .      80 
Classes  op  Nouns.    I,  Proper,  Singnlari  Meaningless. 

II.  Common,    General,     Significant.      Exercise    5. 

III.  Collective  Noans.     IV.    Material  Nouns.    V. 
Abstract  Nouns.     Exercise  6 31 

Questions  on  the  Noun 40 

THE     PRONOUN. 

Definition 42 

Classes  of  Pronouns.  I.  Personal.  II.  Demonstra- 
tive:  various  references  of  *'it"  and  "they"  In- 
definite Demonstratives.  III.  Relative,  co-ordi- 
nating and  restrictive.  Equivalents  of  the  proper 
Relatives.  IV".  Interrogative.  Exercise  7  •  •  43 
Questions  on  the  Pronoun 53 

THE   ADJECTIVE. 

Definition 58 

Classes  of  Adjectives.  I.  Pronominal:  subdivided 
into — 1.  Demonstratives ;  2.  Possessives.  Exercise  8. 
IT.  Quantity  :  subdivided  into — 1.  Quantity  iu 
Mass  or  Bulk  j  2.  Quantity  in  Number,  comprising 


CONTENTS,  IX 


FAOK 


— (1.)  Definite  Numerals,  (2  )  Indefinite  Numerals, 
(3.)  Distributive  Numerals.  Exercise  9.  III.  Quality 
(exemplified  by  qualities  referring  to  Time,  Space,- 
Form,  Motion,  Solidity,  Fluidity,  Colour,  Good  and 
Evil).     Proper  Adjectives 59 

The  Articles  65 

SuBSTiTUTi*:s  FOR  THE  SiMPLE  ADJECTIVE.  1.  A  Clause ; 
2.  a  Participal  Phrase  ;  3.  a  Noun  ;  4.  a  Prepositional 
Phrase ;  5.  a  Possessive  Case  ;  6.  an  Adverb    .        .      66 

Adjectives  in  the  Predicate— Co-ordinate  adjectives. 

Exercise  10 6S 

Questions  ou  the  Adjective        ••••••     73 

THE    VERB. 

Definition       ••••«••••  76 

Classes  of  Verbs.      I.  Transitive.     II,  Intransitive* 

III.  Incomplete,    Exercise  11  •        %        ,        ,  77 

Questions  on  the  Verb 80 

THE   ADVERB. 

Definition 82 

Classes  of  Adverbs.  I.  Place  :— 1.  Eest  in ;  2.  Motion 
to;  3.  Motion  from.  Pronominals.  II.  Time: — 
1.  Present;  2.  Past;  3.  Future;  4.  Duration  and 
Repetition.  III.  Degree.  IV.  Belief,  Certainty. 
V.  Cause  and  Effect.     VI.  Manner  or  Quality  ,      ih. 

Adverbial  Phrases  of  the  various  classes  ...      85 

Select  examples  of  Adverbs  of  Quality,  Adverbial  Clauses, 
&c.     Exercise  12 86 

Questions  on  the  Adverb  • 90 

THE    PREPOSITION. 
Definition 92 

Case-Prepositions  :— Of,  To,  From,  By,  With       .        .      94 


X  CONTENTS. 

FAOl 

Classes  op  Prepositions  generally.  I.  Place  :— 1. 
Rest  iu  J  2.  Motion  with  Direction  ;  3.  Place  and 
Direction.  II.  Time.  III.  Agency.  IV.  End. 
V.  Reference.  VI.  Separation  and  Exclusion. 
VII.  Inclination  and  Conformity.  VIII.  Aversion, 
Opposition.     IX.  Substitution  ....      97 

Questions  on  the  Preposition 101 

THE    CONJUNCTION. 

Definition.  Co-ordinate  and  Dependent  clauses  .        .    103 

Classes  of  Conjunctions.  I.  Co-ordinating  :— 1.  Cumu- 
lative ;  2.  Adversative,  embracing  (1.)  Arrestive,  (2) 
Exclusive,  (3)  Alternative ;  3.  Illative.     Exercise  13     105 

II.  Subordinating  : — 1.  Condition;  2.  End  or  Purpose; 

3.  Reason  and  Cause ;  4.  Time-    Exercise  14    ,        .     109 

Questions  on  the  Conjunction 112 

Interjections 113 


INFLECTION. 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS-DECLENSION. 
GENDER. 
Meaning  of  Geuder.     Modes  of  distinguishing  Gender : — 

different  words,  prefixes,  sufl&xes,  adjectives  of  sex    ,     114 
Questions  on  Declension  for  Gender         ....     116 

NUMBER. 

Meaning  of  Number.  Modes  of  forming  the  plural : — 
usual  modes,  obsolete  modes,  irregular  modes.  Mis- 
cellaneous remarks 117 

Questions  on  Declension  for  Number        .        .        •        .     121 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAOB 

CASE. 

Meaning  of  Case.  Three  cases.  Nouns  inflected  only 
for  the  Possessive.  Modes  of  forming  the  Possessive. 
Limits  to  its  use 122 

Questions  on  Declension  for  Case 123 

INFLECTION    OF    PEONOUNS. 
Pronouns  inflected  for  Objective   case.     Declension  of 

Personal  Pronouns,  of  Relatives,  of  Interrogatives  .     124 
Questions  on  Inflection  of  Pronouns         ....    126 

INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES— COMPARISON. 
Meaning  of    Comparison.      Three  degrees  —  Positive, 

Comparative,  Superlative.     Modes  of  Comparison    .      ih. 
Demonstrative  adjectives  inflected  for  Number  :  Nume- 
ral adjectives  for  Case 127 

Questions  on  Inflection  of  Adjectives        ,        .        ,        .    123 

INFLECTION  OF  ADVERBS. 
Adverbs  inflected  only  for  Degree.     Compared  like  Ad- 
jectives          i&. 

Exercise  15         » ih, 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS-CONJUGATION. 

Voice.    Active  and  Passive 130 

Mood.    Exercise  16 131 

Tense,  Person,  Number 134 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Proper         ,        .        .        ,  ih. 
Auxiliaries  to  the  Inflection  of  the  Verb: — Be, 

Have,  Shall,  Will 136 

Complete  Conjugation  of  the  Verb,  with  Auxiliaries  139 
Quasi-Auxiliary  Verbs  :— Do,  May,  Can,  &c.  .  .  143 
Meanings  oe  the  Tenses.  Present  Indefinite,  Progres- 
sive, Past  Indefinite,  Present  Perfect  ,  ,  .  146 
Irregularities  in  the  Conjugation  of  Verbs  .  ,  147 
Exercise  17.    Questions    •        .        .....  151 


XU.  CONTENTS. 

SYNTAX. 

THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

PAOB 

The  SiMPLK  Sentence  155 

The  Complex  Sentence 161 

The  Compound  Sentence 165 

Examples  of  Analysis    , 166 

CONCORD. 

Concord  of  Subject  and  Verb.  General  Rale.  Causes 
of  errors.  Rule  for  Collective  Nouns.  Rules  for 
nouns  or  pronouns  united  by  *  and  ;  *  exceptions. 
Other  Rules ,        .    176 

CoNCOUD  OF  Noun  and  Adjective.  'This*  and  'that.* 

*  Each  '  and  *  every.* 179 

Concord  of  Tenses.  Present  Indefinite.  Perfect  In- 
finitive          180 

GO  YERNM  ENT. 

Nature  of  Government.  The  Possessive  before  an  infi- 
nitive.   The  rule  for  the  verb  *  be.*  .        ,        .      tb. 

ORDER    OP    WORDS. 


Subject  and  Verb 

Verb  and  Object  .         .        .        • 

Noun  and  Adjective.^  Repetition  of  the  Article 
Pronoun  and  Antecedent  ..... 
Placing  of  the  Adverb.     *  Only*  and  *  not*      • 


ih. 
ih. 
ih. 
1S3 


Exercise  19.    Errors  in  Syntax         .        •        •        .        •    184 


PEEPAEATOEY  EXPLANATIONS. 


SPEECH,  OR  DISCOUESE. 

1.  Speech,  Language,  or  Discourse,  is  made  up 
of  separate  words. 

*  Alfred  drove  the  Danes  from  England ;  and  he  ruled 
the  whole  country  justly.' 

This  is  a  portion  of  speech,  language,  or  discourse ;  and 
is  a  string  of  thirteen  words. 

2.  The  words  are  of  different  sorts,  or  kinds, 
according  to  their  uses. 

Bj  one  kind  of  words  we  name  and  point  out 
persons,  things,  actions,  &c.,  without  connecting 
these  with  any  others. 

The  words  *  Alfred,'  *  Danes,'  *  England,'  'country,' 
name  the  persons  and  things,  and  merely  call  them  to 
mind  without  saying  anything  about  them. 

3.  By  another  kind  of  words  sometliing  is  said, 
told,  or  declared,  about  persons  or  things. 

The  words  'drove,'  'ruled,'  assist  in  telling  something 
about  the  person  *  Alfred,'  who  is  the  main  subject  of  the 


•2  SPEECH,    OR    DISCOURSE. 

speech  or  discourse.  If  these  two  words  were  left  out,  the 
remuining  eleven  would  not  give  sense ;  they  would  have 
no  meaning, 

4.  AH  Speech  contains  at  least  these  two  sorts 
of  words. 

*  The  moon  sets ;  the  stars  disappear  ;  the  sun  rises,  and 
lights  the  earth  and  sea.* 

Of  the  first  sort  of  words  are — moon,  stars,  sun,  earth, 
8ca. 

Of  the  second  sort— sets,  disappear,  rises,  lights. 

There  are  other  words,  in  the  saying  given,  besides  those  ■ 
iHeiitioned  : — the,  from,  and,  he,  whole,  justly.     These  exem- 
plify live  other  sorts  of  words,  whose  uses  will  be  afterwards 
described.     They  are  not  the  leading  words  of  a  speech,  but 
helping  words. 

5.  Whatever  subjects  we  know,  we  give  names 
to. 

Our  knowledge  includes  persons,  places,  things, 
actw)LS  and  results  of  actions,  states  or  situations, 
feelings. 

Persons  and  the  lower  animals : — John,  Luther,  mother, 
queen,  judge,  angel.     Lion,  eagle,  serpent,  shark,  bee. 

Tlaces  : — England,  York,  Rome,  Sahara,  Paradise  ;  street, 
valley,  quarry,  abyss,  sea. 

Things  : — Star,  cloud,  rock,  diamond,  gold.  Tree,  shrub, 
rose,  fruit.     House,  ship,  machine,  bridge. 

Actions,  active  agents,  and  results  of  actions : — Motion, 
thunder,  heat,  fire,  speech,  thought,  battle,  victory,  ruin, 
punishment,  law. 

States,  situations,  and  conditions  : — Freedom,  childhood^ 
apprenticeship,  rest,  royalty,  prosperity,  peace. 


SUBJECTS    NAMED.  JJ 

Feelings,  and  states  of  the  mind: — Pleasure,  love,  anger, 
elation,  excitement,  belief,  conscience,  understanding. 

6.  The  same  kind  of  things  may  be  known  in 
different  ways,  as  shown  by  the  names. 

Thus  in  regard  to  persons,  the  name  *  Alfred'  and  the 
name  *  man,'  refer  to  human  beings,  but  in  distinct  ways. 

The  name  *  Rome  '  and  the  name  *  city  *  express  the  same 
kind  of  subject,  but  very  diflferently. 

7.  We  have  also  names  for  the  connecting  part 
of  Language,  for  saying  or  declaring  something 
about  some  other  thing. 

Brings,  makes,  comes,  is— are  a  few  examples  of  the 
connecting,  or  declaring  words,  used  in  every  complete 
meaning. 

8.  To  understand  Grammar,  there  are  two  steps 
in  our  Knowledge. 

First,  as  to  the  subjects  named  and  spoken  of. 
Second,   as  to  the    subjects,  taken  along  with 
what  is  said  of  them. 


FIEST   STEP   or   KNOWLEDGE. 


SUBJECTS  OR  THINGS  SPOKEN  OF. 

1.  Knowled<7e  proceeds  by  comparing  things  to 
learn  how  far  they  differ,  and  how  far  they  agree. 

We  are  first  struck  with  Differences. 

We  feel  the  difference  of  night  and  day,  sunshine  and 
cloud,  heat  and  cold,  large  and  small,  red  and  blue.  Night 
is  night,  as  being  the  opposite  of  day  ;  day  is  the  opposite 
of  night.     Heat  is  different  from  cold. 

Sour  is  different  from  sweet. 

A  light  weight  affects  us  differently  from  a  heavy  weight 

Milk  is  different  from  water. 

Ice  is  different  from  water. 

A  ball  is  different  from  a  rod. 

Being  hungry  is  different  from  our  state  after  eating. 

Being  asleep  is  different  from  being  awake. 

2.  We  feel  Differences  best  when  the  things  are 
placed  together. 

'Yo  distinguish  two  rods  of  different  length,  we  lay  them 
side  by  side. 

To  see  which  of  two  persons  is  taller,  we  make  them  stand 
close  together. 


DIFFERENCES   AMONG   THINGS.  5 

Two  shades  of  colour  are  distinguislied  by  being  looked 
at  beside  each  other. 

Two  keys  may  be  thought  to  be  exactly  alike,  till  we  com- 
pare them  closely. 

A  glass  of  water  from  a  river  may  seem  perfectly  clear 
when  viewed  alone  ;  by  the  side  of  a  glass  from  a  spring,  it 
will  probably  look  dim.  Unless  they  were  placed  side  by 
side,  we  should  not  discover  the  difference. 

3.  It  is  by  their  DifiPerences  that  things  or  per- 
sons are  separate  and  distinct,  whereby  each  is 
thought  of  as  an  Individual. 

The  Sun  impresses  us  differently  from  the  Moon.  Hence 
we  call  them  separate  and  distinct  objects.  Each  is  an 
Individual ;  and  neither  is  confounded  with  the  other. 

Both  Sun  and  Moon  are  different  from  the  Stars. 

When  we  compare  the  Stars  we  find  differences,  although 
not  so  great.     Some  are  brighter  than  others. 

Two  stars  of  the  same  brightness  have  still  a  difference ; 
they  are  in  different  parts  of  the  heavens.  From  this  differ- 
ence alone,  we  keep  them  distinct  in  our  minds.  Each  is 
an  Individual. 

Our  two  hands  differ  very  little ;  but  from  being  placed 
on  different  sides  of  the  body,  we  treat  them  as  separate ; 
they  are  two  distinct  individuals.  They  have  separate 
names;  '  right  hand,'  *  left  hand.' 

Two  spoons  on  the  table  have  to  the  eye  no  difference  ;  we 
distinguish  them  for  the  moment  by  their  place;  this,  and 
that  spoon ;  the  spoon  here^  the  spoon  there ;  John's  spoon, 
Mary's  spoon. 

Two  men  differ,  not  only  by  their  outward  appearance, 
but  by  their  time  and  place  of  birth,  and  all  the  circum- 


0  SUBJECTS    OR  THINGS   SPOKEN   OF. 

etances  of  their  history,  and  peculiarities  of  their  character. 
When  we  know  these  differences  we  keep  the  persons  distinct 
in  our  own  mind.  We  do  not  confound  Alexander  the  Great 
with  Julius  Coosar,  if  we  know  respecting  each  the  particu- 
lars wherein  the  two  differed. 

1'he  Rhine  is  a  separate,  distinct,  and  Individual  thing. 

The  actions  called  the  founding  of  Rome  and  the  dis- 
covery of  America  are  different  actions. 

The  Reformation  in  Germany,  in  England,  and  in  Scot- 
land, constituted  three  several  actions  or  events. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo  was  an  Individual  action. 

4.  We  are  also  struck  with  Agreements  among 
things. 

Wo  discover  that  one  day  is  like  another,  as  passing 
through  the  stages  of  light  and  dark. 

We  see  that  one  human  being  is  very  like  another. 

One  tree  has  a  great  deal  of  likeness  to  another. 

One  fire  is  like  another. 

One  ball  is  like  another. 

One  chair  is  like  another. 

One  draught  of  water  affects  us  like  another. 

All  these  agreements  are  accompanied  with  diferences  which. 
give  the  peculiarity,  or  the  separate  character,  to  the  things 
compared.  To-day  is  a  little  different  from  yesterday,  while 
in  many  respects  the  same. 

Any  two  human  beings  have  their  points  of  unlikeness. 

One  tree  is  taller,  greener,  leafier,  than  another. 

One  ball  is  made  of  wood,  another  of  ivory. 

One  chair  is  heavier,  or  larger  than  another,  besides  there 
being  many  minute  marks  on  each  peculiar  to  itself. 


AGREEMENTS   AMONG   THINGS.  7 

One  glass  of  water  is  cooler,  and  clearer,  and  fuller  than 
another  glass. 

Placing  things  together  is  favourable  to  discovering  Agree- 
ments, as  well  as  Differences. 

5.  In  some  things  we  discover  a  very  great 
amount  of  diflPerence,  and  very  little  agreement ; 
in  others,  the  reverse. 

In  settled  weather,  any  one  day  is  very  nearly  the  same 
as  the  one  before.  Comparing  a  fine  midsummer  day  with 
a  snowy  day  in  winter,  we  discern  many  and  marked, 
dififerences. 

Two  twins  may  be  so  alike  that  we  are  at  a  loss  to  dis- 
tinguish them.  A  fair-complexioned  English  child  and  an 
aged  negro  are  very  unlike.  A  human  child  is  still  more 
unlike  an  elephant,  a  serpent,  a  salmon,  a  robin-red-breas^,, 
a  butterfly,  an  oyster.  Yet  these  all  agree  in  possessing^ 
animal  life. 

Two  fir  plants  in  a  nursery  garden  may  be  almost  identi- 
cal. A  grown  pine  is  very  different  from  a  grown  oak ; 
still  more  from  a  holly  bush  ;  still  more  from  a  stalk  of  oats 
or  barley.  Yet  greater  is  the  difference  between  any  of 
these  and  one  of  the  animals  just  named. 

6-  Complete  knowledge  unites  Differences  and 
Agreements. 

When  we  have  two  or  more  things  before  us,  our  know- 
ledge is  incomplete  till  we  see  both  all  that  they  differ  in, 
and  all  that  they  agree  in. 

Water  and  milk  are  compared,  and  found  to  differ  in 
colour  and  in  taste ;  to  agree  in  being  liquid,  and  in  being 
used  as  drink. 


8  SUBJECTS   OR  THINGS   SPOKEN   OP. 

They  both  diff<  r  from  ink,  which  is  black,  has  a  bad  taste, 
18  never  drunk,  and  is  used  for  writing  ;  they  agree  with  it 
in  being  liquid. 

All  these  substances  differ  from  soup,  from  vinegnr,  from 
wine  ;  while  agreeing  in  one  fact,  namely,  that  they  are 
liquids. 

Red  and  Blue  are  different  to  the  eye.  They  agree  in 
being  colours. 

Round  and  Oval  are  different :  the  one  is  of  equal  size 
across  everywhere ;  the  other  is  lonj^er  in  one  direction. 
They  agree  in  being  rounded  or  curved  figures. 

Tee  differs  from  water,  in  being  cold  and  in  being  solid. 
The  two  agree  in  being  the  same  material,  and  in  being 
transparent.  Ice  differs  from  Snow  in  being  hard  and 
transparent.  Steam  differs  from  Tee,  Snow,  and  Water,  in 
being  a  gas  and  invisible.  All  the  four  agree  in  being  one 
material,  although  undergoing  diff^^rent  changes. 

A  chair  and  a  bed  differ  (1)  in  construction,  and  (2)  in  the 
manner  of  their  use.  They  agree  (1)  in  being  articles  of 
house  furniture,  and  (2)  in  being  used  for  resting  on. 

A  flute  and  a  violin  differ  in  construction,  and  in  the 
•manner  of  playing  them  ;  they  agree  in  being  musical  in- 
struments.    The  human  throat  agrees  with  both. 

Exercise  1. 

Examples  of  Difference  and  Agreement 

1.  A  penny  and  a  shilling. 

2.  A  railway  and  a  road. 

3.  Dwelling-house  and  church, 

4.  Square  and  triangle, 
o.  Food  and  drink. 

6.  Six  and  a  hundred. 


CLASSES  FOUNDED  ON  AGREEMENTS.        9 

7.  Arm,  leg ;  eye,  ear. 

8.  Dragoon  and  foot  soldier ;  private,  officer.    Lords  and 

Commons. 

9.  Englishman,  Frenchman,  German. 

10.  Printing,  writing. 

11.  Child,  man. 

12.  Catholic,  Protestant,  Jew,  Mahometan, 
VS.  Farmer,  builder,  merchant. 

14.  Sea,  river,  fountain  ;  desert,  field. 

From  this  union  of  difference  and  agreement  proceeds  all 
our  knowledge.  We  know  the  differences  of  things,  and  so 
distinguish  them  from  one  another,  or  give  to  them  their 
character  as  Iiidivi duals.  We  know  the  agreements  also 
from  which  knowledge  many  consequences  follow. 

7.  Owing  to  Agreements,  we  make  Classes. 

Human  beings  agree  so  much  that,  in  spite  of  their  dif- 
ferences, we  regard  them  as  making  up  a  class ;  and  give 
them  a  class  name — Man,  human  being. 

The  animals  that  walk  on  all-fours  are,  when  compared, 
found  to  be  very  different ;  an  elephant  is  extremely  unlike 
a  mouse  ;  yet  they  have  numerous  points  of  sameness ;  for 
which  they  are  made  into  a  class— ^Quadruped. 

When  the  agreement  is  close,  and  the  differe  ces  few, 
classes  are  formed  with  very  numerous  characters  This  is 
the  case  with  human  beings,  with  horses,  dogs,  fir  trees,  and 
metals. 

When  the  agreement  is  slender,  and  the  differences  nume- 
rous, the  class  bond  is  small ;  the  including  of  human  beings 
and  metals  in  a  class  gives  very  little  class  agreement. 
There  are  some  marks  in  common ;  both  are  material  and 
solid  bodies. 


10 


SUiaECTS    OR   THINGS   SPOKEN   OF. 


8.  Tlie  names  of  Classes  are  General  Namac«. 

The  meaning  of  '  General '  is  agreement  among 
a  number  of  Individuals. 

The  class  name  *  man  '  is  a  general  name,  because  it  sup- 
poses that  all  the  Individual  men  resemble  one  another,  or 
agree. 

The  class  name  'conqueror'  is  a  general  name,  given  to 
the  Individuals — Alexander  the  Great,  Julius  Ciesar,  Attila 
— because  they  agreed  in  leading  armies  and  in  subduing 
countries. 

The  class  name  or  general  name,  *  river,'  is  given  to  th^ 
individuals  called  the  Thames,  the  Rhine,  the  Nile,  the 
Ganges,  because  they  all  agree  in  what  is  meant  by  a  river. 

Examples  of  General  Names  or  Class  Names. 


Apostle, 

Preacher, 

Workman, 

rianet, 

Poet, 

Fishernianj 

King, 

Judge, 

Seaman, 

Soldier, 

Reptile, 

Spider, 

Bird, 

Insect, 

Fly, 

Tree, 

Bush, 

Rose, 

Mineral, 

Hedge, 

Tulip, 

Stone, 

Street, 

Diamond. 

9.  There  may  be  higher  and  lower  Classes, 
the  higher  containing  the  lov^er. 

The  class  *  human  beings  *  contains  classes  under  it ;  as 
"white  men  and  negroes. 

The  class  *  birds  *  contains  the  classes— birds  of  prey, 
climbing  birds,  swimming  birds,  wading  birds,  &c. 

The  class  *  trees  of  the  forest '  contains  the  classes — oak, 
birch,  beech,  elm,  willow,  plane,  yew,  &c. 


HIGHER   AND    LOWER   CLASSES.  11 

The  class  *  Animals  '  is  higher  than  *  human  beings  ; '  it 
contains  *  human  beings,'  and  all  the  classes  of  the  brutes  or 
the  lower  animals— quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes. 

The  class  described  by  the  general  name  *  building '  con- 
tains a  large  number  of  objects  with  certain  points  of  agree- 
ment. It  may  be  divided  into  smaller  classes — as  private 
building  and  public  building.  The  class  Private  building 
may  be  farther  divided  into  dwelling  houses,  shops,  stables, 
and  various  other  classes.  The  class  Public  building  may 
be  divided  into  smaller  classes — as  Official  buildings,  Eccle- 
siastical buildings  or  churches,  and  fortresses  for  defence, 
as  Gibraltar. 

We  may  begin  at  the  Individual  and  proceed  upwards  to 
the  successively  higher  classes,  thus  : — 

Individual.  The  fortress  of  Gibraltar. 
Lowest  Class.  Fortresses. 
Higher  Class.   Public  Buildings. 
Still  Higher  Class.  B  ui  1  di  n  gs. 

Exercise  2. 

Higher  and  Lower  Classes. 

1.  Social  Animals: — Beaver,  Bee,  Wasp,  Ant. 

2.  Eatables:— Bread,  Vegetables,  Fish,  Meat, 

3.  Property: — Money,  Land,  Houses,  8hips. 

4.  Wines  : — Sherrj'',  Port,  CI  iret,  Hock. 

6.  Virtues  : — Justice,  Benevolence,   Prudence. 

6.  Professions  : — Clergymen,  Lawyers,  Physicians. 

7.  Heavenly  Bodies: — Fixed  Stars,  Planets,  Satellites, 
Comets. 

( Take  some  of  the  lower  classes,  and  subdivide  them  into  still 
lower,  so  as  to  end  at  an  individual.) 


12        SUBJECTS  OR  THINGS  SPOKEN  OP. 

10.  The  higher  class  contains  more  members 
than  the  lower,  but  has  fewer  class  marks. 

There  are  more  Animals  than  human  beings,  more  human 
beings  than  white  men. 

There  are  more  Birds  than  there  are  birds  of  prey. 

There  are  more  Trees  than  pines,  more  pines  than  Nor- 
wegian pines. 

There  are  more  Buildings  than  there  are  public  buildings, 
more  public  buildings  than  churches. 

The  class  Animal  has  fewer  marks  or  peculiarities  than 
the  class  human  being.  A  human  being  has  all  the  char- 
acters that  the  animals  have,  and  characters  of  its  own  be- 
sides. 

The  bird  of  prey  has  all  the  characters  of  Birds  in  general, 
together  with  the  special  characters  named  by  the  words, 

*  bird  of  prey* 

A  church  has  all  the  peculiarities  belonging  to  buildings 
generally  ;  it  has  also  all  the  marks  belonging  to  public 
buildings  ;  it  has,  in  addition,  the  peculiarity  of  its  own  class 
— namely,  being  used  for  worship. 

There  is    more    agreement    among   the   objects    named 

*  poets'  than  among  the  objects  named  men  ;  there  are  cor- 
respondingly fewer  poets  than  men.  For  every  additional 
point  of  agreement,  there  is  a  less  number  of  the  agreeing 
objects.  Add  '  blind '  to  the  name  poet,  and  say  '  blind 
poet,'  and  fewer  persons  are  to  be  found  suiting  the  designa- 
tion ;  it  applies  to  Homer  and  to  Milton,  but  not  to 
Shakspeare,  to  Pope,  nor  to  many  other  poets. 

*  Capital  *  contains  more  meaning  than  *  city  ; '  and  ac- 
cordingly there  are  fewer  capitals  than  there  are  cities. 
The  class  *  capital'  is  a  subdivision,  or  select  portion  of  the 


GENUS   AND    SPECIES.  13 

class  •  city  ;  *  the  class  *  city  '  Is  a  large  class  containing  the 
class  *  capital,'  and  other  cities  besides  that  are  not  capitals. 

The  designation  *  large  and  populous  capitals  '  expresses 
more  than  '  capitals  ; '  it  applies  to  a  smaller  number  of 
cities.  It  applies  to  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  Berlin,  but  not 
to  Washington. 

Medicine  and  Law  agree  in  being  occupations  ;  in  this 
they  resemble  fishing,  shoemaking,  cottonspinnipg,  and 
many  others.  They  agree  more  closely  and  specially  in 
being  learned  occupations,  which  these  others  are  not.  The 
greater  amount  of  agreement  among  occupations,  expressed 
by  prefixing  the  name  learned^  makes  the  number  fewer 
and  more  select.  There  are  many  occupations;  there  are 
only  a  few  learned  occupations. 

In  enlarging  classes,  we  drop  agreements ;  in  passing  from 
the  class  '  animal '  to  the  class  *  living  being,'  we  drop  the 
agreements  peculiar  to  animals,  and  the  agreements  peculiar 
to  plants,  and  retaia  what  both  animals  and  plants  agree  in. 

11.  The  words  genus  and  species  mean  res- 
pectively higher  class  and  lower  class — as  genus 
*  city,'  species  '  capital/ 

The  genus  contains  more  individuals  and  has  fewer 
characters  than  the  species. 

The  class  name  is  sometimes  called  the  generic  name  ;  the 
name  for  the  additional  meaning  of  the  species  is  called  the 
specific  name,  or  the  specific  distinction, 

12.  The  additional  meaning  that  makes  a  class 
smaller  and  more  select  is  often  given  by  a  dis- 
tinct word — '  white  thorn,'  *  beautiful  scene.' 

In  some  of  the  instances  named,  the  increase  of  meaning 


.14  SUBJECTS    OR   THINGS   SPOKEN   OP. 

is  conveyed  by  a  separate  name ;  as  man,  poet ;  city,  capital. 
More  usual  is  the  employment  of  a  second  word  to  the 
name — blind  poet.  *  Thorn  '  means  a  certain  class  of  trees ; 
*  white  thorn '  is  a  more  select  class,  possessing,  in  addition 
to  all  the  peculiarities  of  thorns  generally,  the  peculiarity  of 
white  flowers.  *  Scene  '  is  a  class  ;  *  beautiful  scene  '  is  a 
smaller  contained  class,  to  which  we  may  apply  the  specific 
or  peculiar  character  of  beauty, 

*  Mountain '  contains  the  select  division  *  wooded  moun- 
tain.' 

We  may  have  *  wine '  simply,  or  the  specifying  and  select 
classes  ^  sweet  wine,'  *  effervescing  wine.* 

*  Lion  ; '  *  male  lion,'  *  female  lion.' 
This  word  is  called  the  AdJectlYe. 

13.  The  inferior  classes  are  termed  subordinate 
with  reference  to  the  superior. 

Classes  that  have  the  same  rank,  as  divisions  of 
a  higher  class,  are  co-ordinate. 

The  very  hii^h  class  named  Living  Beings,  is  diviied  into 
two  great  classes — Plants  and  Animals  ;  which  are  therefore 
subordinate  classes,  as  respects  Living  Beings.  They  are 
co-ordinate  as  respects  each  other. 

The  class  Bird  has  the  lower  or  subordinate  classes — birds 
of  prey,  climbing  bird,  swimming  bird,  «S:c.  ;  these  are  co- 
ordinate classes. 

If  Public  Buildings  be  divided  into  official  buildings, 
churches,  fortresses,  &c.,  these  are  co-ordinate  classes  :  they 
are  all  in  subordination  to  the  class — Public  Buildings. 

14.  To  explain  or  Define  a  thing  is  to  give  its 
differences  and  agreements  when  compared  with 
other  thinors. 


DEFINITION.  15 

The  Agreements  are  given  by  stating  the 
superior  class  that  it  belongs  to. 

Alexander  the  Great  is  in  part  explained  or  defined  when 
we  give  his  agreements  with  Caesar,  Attila,  and  Napoleon  ; 
which  is  to  put  him  in  the  superior  class — conqueror. 

Iron  is  partly  explained  by  its  agreements  with  gold, 
silver,  lead,  in  the  class— metal, 

15.  The  Differences  are  given  by  stating  the 
peculiarities  distiagulsliing  the  object  from  other 
members  of  the  class. 

The  account  of  Alexander  is  completed  by  his  own  per- 
sonal history,  wherein  he  differed  from  Cfesar  and  the  rest. 

The  definition  of  Iron  is  completed  by  mentioning  the 
properties  distinguishing  it  from  other  metals. 

Examples  of  Definition, 

A  Shilling  agrees  with  a  penny,  a  sixpence,  a  florin,  a 
sovereign,  or  belongs  to  the  class  Coined  Money.  It  differs 
from  all  other  coins  in  its  value,  which  is  twelve  penee  ;  but 
not  from  all,  in  being  made  of  silver. 

A  Church.  Class — Public  Building;  Distinguishing  or 
specifying  mark — used  for  religious  worship. 

A  Street.  CI  iss — Congregation  of  Houses ;  Difference  or 
distinguishing  marks— the  houses  arranged  in  one  or  two 
rows,  on  a  public  pathway. 

An  Army  is  *  a  collection  of  men  *  (Class)  ;  *  trained, 
equipped,  and  arrayed  for  fighting  '  (Difference). 

A  River  is  *  a  body  of  running  water  *  (Class)  ;  *  rising  in 
the  high  grounds  or  hills,  contained  in  many  channels 
leading  into  one,  and  flowing  to  the  sea  *  (Difference). 

A  poker  is  a  machine  of  the  class  *  lever ; '  used  for 
stirring  the  fire. 


16  SUBJECTS   OR  THINGS   SPOKEN   OP. 

Exercise  3. 

Define  the  following  things  : — 

1.  Plough,  spade,  clock,  watch,  cart,  carriage, 

2.  Mountain,  sea,  lake. 

3.  Star,  planet,  moon. 

4.  Builder,  sailor,  painter,  general,  king,  martyr. 

5.  Book,  paper. 

6.  Prudence,  benevolence. 

16-  In  a  definition  the  distinction  or  difference 
may  be  one  point,  or  more  than  one. 

After  stating  the  class,  we  state  the  difference.  The 
difference  may  be  one  particular,  or  it  may  be  two  or  more. 

A  fire-place  is  *  a  part  of  a  room  *  (Class)  for  *  containing 
a  fire  '  (Difference).     Here  there  is  one  difference. 

Coal  is  a  mineral  (Class)  formed  from  ancient  trees  (1)  and 
extracted  for  burning  (2).    Here  there  are  ^tf'o  differences, 

A  planet  is  a  heavenly  body  (CI  iss)  ;  it  revolves  round  a 
a  central  sun  (1)  in  a  nearly  circular  path  (2).  Here  both 
differences  are  needed ;  the  first  distinguishes  it  from 
satellites ;  the  second  from  comets. 

The  Part  of  Speech  called  the  Noun  needs  for  its  definition 
tJtree  differences. 

17-  Agreement  is  sometimes  expressed  in  the 
Abstract;  as  by  the  words— roundness,  white- 
ness,  greatness,  wisdom,  fire. 

The  name  '  circle,'  or  the  name  *  round,*  applies  to  a  great 
number  of  things  having  the  same  shape — a  wheel,  a  ring, 
a  penny,  and  many  besides.  When  we  wish  to  mention  the 
shape  by  itself,  without  considering  the  size,  colour,  weight, 
or  material  of  the  things,  we  speak  of  the  round  shape  in 
the  abstract;  and  for  this  we  use  the  word  *  roundness.* 


AGREEMENTS    IN   THE    ABSTRACT.  17 

*  Wisdom  *  is  one  or  more  *  wise  persons  '  looked  at  only  as 
"wise,  and  without  reference  to  their  being  tall  or  short, 
young  or  old,  or  otherwise  different.  A  wise  man  must  have 
all  that  belongs  to  a  man,  but  we  may  speak  of  him  solely  as 
being  wise,  or  as  belonging  to  the  class  named  wise. 

In  opposition  to  Abstract,  the  words  *  round '  and 
*  circle,'  and  the  word  *  wise,'  are  called  Concrete  names. 


SECOND  STEP  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


WHAT  IS  SAID  OF  A  SUBJECT- 
PREDICATION. 

1.  When  we  speak  we  do  more  than  name,  or 
point  to,  some  person  or  thing  ;  we  say  something 
about  that  person  or  thing: — John  is  hero;  the 
clock  has  struck  two. 

The  saying — John  is  here — names  or  mentions  John,  and 
says  or  tells  about  him  that  '  he  is  here.* 

The  saying — the  clock  has  struck  two — names  or  mentions 
the  clock,  and  says  or  tells  about  it  that  it  *  has  struck  two.* 

2.  The  thing  mentioned  and  spoken  about  is 
called  the  Subject;  wliat  is  said  about  it  is  called 
the  Predicate. 

'John  is  here.* 
Subject — John. 
Predicate — is  here. 

*  Rain  baa  fallen.* 
Subject — Rajn. 
Predicate — has  fallen. 

*  The  stars  are  distant.' 
Subject — The  stars. 
Predicate — are  distant. 

Exercise  4. 

Examples  of  sayings  about  Subjects:-—' 

Predications  or  Propositions. 

(To  be  divided  into  Subject  and  Predicate.) 

1.  The  kettle  boils.  2.  The  canary  sings.  3.  Oscar  followed 

me.    4.  The  fire  is  hot.     6.  John  will  get  a  watch.     6.  Our 


PROPOSITIONS   AS   RULES.  19 

neighbour's  cat  has  taken  a  rat.  7.  Jane  waters  the 
flowers.  8.  The  doctor  passes  this  way  every  morning. 
9.  Whoever  wishes  to  be  well  spoken  of  should  think  what 
will  please  other  people.  10.  The  early  bird  catches  the 
worm.  11.  A  rose  by  any  other  name  would  smell  as  sweet. 
12.  War  is  a  dire  calamity.  13.  The  death  of  Alexander 
III.,  of  Scotland,  by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  was  the  be- 
ginning of  great  evils  to  the  country.  14.  A  sick  room 
should  be  well  aired.  15.  Within  the  last  century  there 
have  been  grcjat  improvements  in  all  kinds  of  knowledge, 
and  in  all  the  arts. 

3.  A  Proposition  may  be  Singular,  or  it  may  be 
General. 

It  is  a  singular  proposition  to  say — *  Rome  has  many  narrow 
streets.'  The  saying  refers  to  the  individual  city,  Rome.  It  is 
a  general  proposition  to  say — *  Old  cities  have  narrow  streets.' 
The  saying  in  this  case  refers  to  the  whole  class,  old  or 
ancient  cities. 

Cassar  was  brave  ;  great  generals  are  brave. 

Mars  shines  by  the  light  of  the  sun  ;  all  the  planets  shine 
by  the  light  of  the  sun. 

Iron  corrodes  ;  the  metals  corrode, 

4.  A  Proposition  may  be  true  universally,  or 
it  may  have  Exceptions. 

Some  general  propositions  are  true  in  every  instance  : — 
Men  will  die  ;  all  matter  is  indestructible. 

Some  propositions  fail  in  certain  cases,  which  are  said  to 
be  exceptions  : — All  metals  rust  in  the  air,  except  gold, 
silver,  and  a  few  others. 

5.  Propositions  are  sometimes  given  as  direc- 
tions, or  rules  for  practice. 


20      WHAT    IS    SAID    OF    A    SUBJECT— PREDICATION. 

*Eat  that  you  may  live  *  is  a  rule  or  practical  direction. 
It  is  the  practical  form  of  the  proposition — '  Eating,  or  food, 
supports  life,' 

*  Ohey  the  law  '  is  a  rule  of  practice.     It  is  the  same  as — 

*  the  law  must  be  obeyed  ; '  *  every  one  is  compelled  to  obey 
the  law.  * 

*  Learn  while  you  are  young.' 

*  Speak  distinctly.' 

These  are  difTorent  from  the  ordinai'y  forms  of  speech,  and 
are  called  Imperative  forms.  The  separation  into  subject  and 
predicate  is  made  by  findim^  out  who  is  addressed. 

'Shut  the  door;'  subject,  *you*  (unexpressed);  predicate 

*  shut  the  door.' 

*  Poachers,  beware  ;  *  suhjecf,  *  (you)  poachers  ;  *  predicatef 

*  beware.' 

6.  Rules  may  be  universal,  or  thcj  may  have 
exceptions. 

*  Do  all  the  good  you  can '  is  a  universal  rule. 

*  Take  food  when  you  are  hungry,'  is  a  general  rule,  but 
not  without  exceptions.  Sometimes  people  should  abstain 
from  eating. 

The  rule  *  swear  not  at  all '  is  considered  by  the  Society  of 
Friends  to  have  no  exceptions.  The  greater  number  of 
persons  think  that  taking  an  oath  before  a  court  of  jus- 
tice is  au  exception. 

Grammar  contains  a  great  many  rules,  but  many  of  them 
have  exceptions.  Hence,  after  stating  a  rule,  there  is 
frequently  given  a  list  of  exceptions. 


THE    SENTEN'CE. 


1.  Speech  Is  made  up  of  separate  sayings,  each 
complete  iu  itself.     These  are  Sentences. 

A  person  may  utter  one  single  meaning,  as  *  the  sky  is 
clear ; '  but  a  speech  generally  contains  several  meanings,  or 
distinct  propositions.  *  The  sky  was  lately  clouded.  It  is 
now  clear.  There  is  no  fear  of  rain.'  Three  distinct 
meanings  are  here  given  in  succession  ;  each  is  complete  in 
sense,  having  a  distinct  subject  and  a  distinct  predicate. 

2.  Every  saying,  declaration,  or  proposition,  is  a 
Sentence. 

All  the  examples  given  of  sayings  or  propositions  are 
examples  of  Sentences  (p.  18)  ;  and  there  will  be  many  more 
afterwards. 

The  Sentence,  being  in  every  respect  what  is  meant  by  a 
saying,  or  proposition,  or  assertion,  has  the  same  two 
parts — namely,  Subject  and  Predicate.  These  parts 
have  now  to  be  viewed  more  particularly,  as  bearing  on 
Grammar. 

Examples  of  Short  Sentences. 

We  can  have  a  distinct  and  full  meaning  in  two  words  ; 
one  being  the  Subject,  the  other  the  Predicate. 


22  THE    SENTENCE. 

Sirius  twinkles. 

Jupiter  thunders. 

Victoria  reigns. 

Peter  repented. 

Nero  fiddled. 

Bucephalus  neighed. 

Carthage  fell. 

Rome  remains. 

Bnowdon  appears. 

^len  laugh,  aogs  fight,  horses  gallop. 
Mountains  tower. 

Matter  resitits,  gold  glitters. 
Steel  tarnishes. 
Fire  burns. 

Industry  enriches,  art  refines. 
Misery  crushes,  hope  cheers. 
Punishment  deters,  wisdom  guides. 
Music  soothes. 
In  every  one  of  these  the  first  word  is  the  Subject,  the 
second  the  Predicate.  • 

The  following  examples  have  three  w^ords,  the  two  first 
being  the  Subject,  the  third  the  Predicate  :— 
The  moon  rises. 
A  horseman  came. 
This  man  answers. 
No  one  survives. 
Great  poets  arise. 
The  subjects  are  *  the  moon,'  *a  horseman,'  &o. 


NOUN   AND   VERB.  23 

The  following  examples  have  three  words,  the  first  Sub- 
ject, the  two  last  Predicate  : — 

Moses  led  Israel. 

Titus  destroyed  Jerusalem. 

Government  makes  laws. 

Animals  serve  man. 

Misfortune  brings  despair. 
It  will  be  seen  that  these    sentences  give  a  more  complete 
account  than  the  others.     They  name  some  one  that  does 
something ;  they  state  what  is  the  kind  of  the  action,  and> 
finall}',  what  is  the  thing  acted  on. 

3.  The  examples  containing  only  two  words  are 
examples  of  a  naked  sentence.  They  give  the 
words  es.sential  to  a  meaning,  and.  all  other  words 
are  additions  or  Adjuncts  to  these. 

These  two  words  are  the  two  chief  Parts  of 
Speech  ;  the  first  is  called  the  Noun,  the  second  the 
Verb. 

In  the  sentence  *  gold  glitters,'  the  Subject  *  gold  '  is  called 
a  Noun,  the  Predicate  *  glitters  '  is  called  a  Verb. 

Jupiter  (noun)  thunders  (verb). 

Jklen  (noun)  laugh  (verb). 

Eocks  (noun)  press  (verb). 

Carthage  (noun)  fell  (verb). 

The  words  naming  the  Subjects  are  Nouns ;  the  words 
giving  the  Predicates  are  Verbs. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  subject  is  sometimes  one  person 
or  thing  (Jupiter,  Carthage),  and  sometimes  a  whole  class 
(men,  rocks). 

It  may  be  remarked,  also,  that  the  Predicate  word — the 
Verb — gives  the  time  of  the  action  or  fact  predicated.  '  Thun- 


24  THE    SENTENCE. 

ders,'  *  lancfh/  *  press,* — siarnify  present  time ;  *  fell  *  is  past 
time.  It  is  a  cLiaracter  of  Verba  to  state  whether  the  action  is 
present,  past,  or  future. 

If  all  meanings  could  be  expressed  in  two  words,  like 
these  examples,  there  would  be,  in  Grammar,  only  two  kinds 
of  words,  or  two  Parts  of  Speech — Noun  and  Verb. 

4.  Tn  sentences  with  more  than  two  words, 
tli(  re  Jire  still  two  cliiaf  words,  and  the  others 
are  looked  upon  as  helps  or  Adjuncts. 

*  Great  poets  arise  :  *  Subject,  *  great  poets ;  *  chief  word, 
the  noun  'poets;'  additional  word,  or  Adjunct,  *  great. 
The  word  *  poet '  has  a  meaning  in  itself;  the  word  *  great ' 
has  no  meaning  in  itself;  it  has  a  meaning  when  used  along 
with  any  noiui,  as  poet,  man,  river.  It  is  purely  an  Ad- 
junct word. 

*  His  blood  boiled.* — Subject,  *  his  blood  ;  *  principal  word, 
the  noun  *  blood  ; '  additional  word,  or  adjunct,  *  his.* 

*  Those  men  departed.* — Subject,  *  those  men  ;  *  principal 
word,  the  noun  *  men ;  *  additional  word,  or  adjunct,  *  those.' 

*  The  stars  rise.* — Subject,  'the  stars;*  principal  word, 
the  noun  '  stars; '  additional  word,  or  adjunct,  '  the.* 

*  His,'  '  this,'  and  '  the  *  are  adjectives. 

5.  The  words  joined  to  the  Noun,  in  these  in- 
stances, are  called  Adjectives. 

It  is  very  common  to  have  the  Subject  made  up  of  a  Noun 
and  Adjective  : — old  walls,  wJiite  sugar,  rare  jewels,  good 
will. 

As  already  explained  (pp.  12, 14),  the  Adjective  limits  the 
number  of  things  expressed  by  a  general  noun,  and  increases 
the  points  of  agreement.  Examples  : — round  table,  straight 
road,  bright  eye. 


ADJECTIVE   AND   ADVERB.  25 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  most  Adjectives  ti  express  a  meaning 
that  may  be  more  or  less  in  degree.  *  Great'  may  be  made 
*  greater '  or  '  greatest.' 

6-  When  the  Predicate  consists  of  several  words, 
there  is  usually  one  chief  word,  a  verb ;  the  others 
being  Adjuncts. 

In  the  form,  *  Animals  serve  men,'  the  Predicate  is  *  serve 
men ; '  the  chief  word  is  the  Verb  '  serve  ;  '  the  word  *  men,* 
is  an  Adjunct.  It  is  a  Noun,  and  is  called  the  Object  of  the 
verb  serve;  the  act  of  serving  is  performed  towards  '  men.' 
This  is  one  mode  of  completing  the  Predicate,  or  enlarging 
the  Predicate  verb.  The  verbs  that  may  take  this  Adjunct 
are  called  Transitive  verbs.  The  verbs  that  do  not  take 
such  an  Adjunct,  as  in  *  he  rtcns^'  are  Intransitive. 

7.  The  Predicate  may  be  enlarged  in  another 
way  ;  as — Animals  serve  men  faithfully  ;  he  runs 
swiftly. 

The  words  *  faithfully  '  and  *  swiftly  *  resemble  Adjectives 
in  this  that  they  have  no  meaning  when  standing  by  them- 
selves. Their  meaning  is  seen  along  with  a  verb,  and  they 
modify  or  qualify  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb.  It  is 
one  thing  to  serve  ;  it  is  something  additional  to  8erve  faith- 
fully :  it  is  one  thing  to  rim,  it  is  something  more  to  run 
swiftly.     These  words  are,  in  Grammar,  Adverbs. 

Examples  of  Adverbs. 
The  fire  soon  consumed  the  town. 
The  fact  is  certainly  true. 
He  deftly  plied  the  oar. 
Solomon  judged  wisely* 
W&M  patiently. 

Some  do  nothing  well, 
3 


26  THE   SENTENCE. 

Another  form  of  the  Adverb  is  seen  in  the  sentence — *  3he 
learns  music  at  home.''  The  adverb  is  here  made  up  of  two 
words,  'at'  and  'home.'  The  second  word  *home'  is  a 
Noun  ;  it  might  be  the  subject  or  (A)j(  ct  of  a  sentence.  The 
other  word  *  at '  is  called  a  Preposition.  The  combination 
of  a  Noun  and  a  Preposition  in  this  way  is  called  an  Adverbial 
Fhrase. 

8.  Sometimes  a  word  is  used  to  conned  two 
different  sentences  ;  as  *  Alexander  died  at  Baby- 
lon, and\\\^  empire  was  divided  among  his  generals/ 

The  word  *  and  *  is  called  a  Conjunction. 

9.  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  may  be  given  by 
a  word  of  referevce  : — The  Vatican  is  in  Eome ;  it 
is  the  palace  of  the  Pope. 

In  the  first  of  these  two  sentences,  the  subject  is  *The 
Vatican,'  which  is  a  noun,  and  names  the  building  intended 
to  be  spoken  of.  In  the  second  sentence,  the  subject  is  given 
by  the  word  *it^' which  refers  back  to  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  and  but  for  that  reference  could  have  no  meaning. 
*  It '  is  called  a  Pronoun. 

The  Queen  is  coming  ;  she  is  gaily  attired. 

The  Peers  have  assembled  ;  they  have  taken  their  seats. 

*  I  am  a  man  more  sinned  against  than  sinning.'  /  means 
the  person  speaking  at  the  time.  Thou  and  you  are  the 
persons  addressed. 

10-  The  Seven  Classes  of  words,  now  ennme- 
rated — Noun,  Verb,  Afljectivc,  Adverb,  Preposition, 
Conjunction,  Pronoun — are  called  the  Parts  of 
Speech. 

They  are  taken  in  order  as  follows  ; — 


THE    PARTS    OF   SPEECH.  27 

Noun. 

Pronoun. 

Adjective, 

Verb. 

Adverb. 

Preposition. 

Conjunction. 
The  Noun,  the  Pronoun,  and  the  Adjective,  appear  chiefly 
in  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence.     The  Verb  and  the  Adverb 
appear   in   the   Predicate.      The  Noun   and  the    Adjective 
appear  in  the  Predicate  occasionally. 

The  three  Parts  of  Speech  named  Pronoun,  Preposition, 
and  Conjunction,  are  entirely  without  meaning  when  they 
Stand  alone  :  as  I,  it,  for,  and. 

The  Adjective  and  Adverb,  standing  alone,  are  imperfect 
or  incomplete  in  meaning. 

The  Noun  and  the  Verb  have  a  meaning  in  themselves ; 
which  the  other  Parts  of  Speech  extend  and  vary. 

Questions. 

1.  What  is  speech  made  up  of  ? 

2.  What  are  the  two  different  uses  of  words  ? 

3.  Give  the  leading  words  in  the  saying,  *  All  men  grieve 

when  they  lose  friends.  ' 

4.  Give  the  helping  words  in  the  same  saying. 

5.  What  subjects  are  included  in  our  knowledge  ? 

6.  In  which  list  of  subjects  should  each  of  the  following 

names  be  placed  : — horse,  Turkey,  flint,  joy,  Isaac, 
infancy,  oratory  ? 

7.  What  part  of  language  do  the  words — rouses,  had, 

became — belong  to  ? 


28  THE    SENTENCE. 

8.  What  are  the  facts  that  all  knowledge  begins  from  ? 

9.  What  enables  us  to  recognise  *  up  and  down,'  *  long 

and  short,'  *  strong  and  weak  ?' 

10.  In  what  way  do  we  best  discover  Differences  ? 

11.  What  makes  an  Individual  ?     Examples: — The  Ger- 

man Ocean,  Jerusalem,  George  III. 

12.  What  is  the  efftict  upon  us  when  two  different  things 

are  like  each  other  ? 

13.  In  which  of  the  two  following  couples  is  there  most 

agreement: — a  table  and  a  chair;   a  house  and  a 
tree  ? 

14.  What  union  makes  knowledge  complete  ? 

15.  What  are  C/asses  founded  on  ?  for  example,  the  classes 

— stars,  seas,  clouds,  ships? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  a  General  name  ?    Are  class  names 

general ? 

17.  "When  is  one  class  higher  than  another  ? 

18.  Which  class — higher  or  lower — contains  most  indi- 

viduals ?     Show  this  in  the  classes — men.  English- 
men. 

19.  What  is  the  meaning  oi  genus  and  species  ? 

20.  What  is  the  additional  word  that  expresses  a  smaller. 

class  with  mere  marks  ? 

21.  Give  the  meaning  of  Subordinate  and  Coordinate. 

22.  What  is  the  method  of  Defining  a  thing? 

23.  llow  are  Agreements  given  shortly  ? 

24.  How  are  the  Differences  given  ? 

25.  What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  white  and 

whiteness  ?     Which  of  the  two  words  is  Abstract  ? 

26.  What  is  necessiry,  more  than  a  Subject,  to  make  a 

saying  complete  ? 

27.  What   is    the    difference   between —  *  London    has    a 

Mayor,'  and — *  all  the  English  towns  have  mav'  ■  •  ?' 


QUESTIONS.  29 

28.  When  a  proposition  is  not  true  in  every  case,  what 

should  be  stated  alon^  with  it  ? 

29.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  proposition  and  a 

rule  ?     Are  all  rules  universal  ?  ^ 

30.  What  is  a  Sentence  ? 

31.  What  is  the  fewest  number  of  words  in  a  Sentence  ? 

32.  When  a  Sentence  has  but  two  words,  what  are  these 

words  ? 

33.  Which  word  includes,  in  its  meaning,  the  time  of  aa 

action  P 

34.  What  is  the  word  that  is  usually  joined  to  the  Sub- 

ject? 

35.  How  may  the  Predicate  be  enlarged  ? 

36.  What  Part  of  Speech  arises  from  the  enlargement  of 

the  Predicate  ? 

37.  What  is  the  Adverbial  Phrase  ?     What  new  Part  of 

Speech  appears  in  it  ? 

38.  What  is  -the  Part  of  Speech  used  to  connect   Sen- 
^    tences  ? 

39.  What  Part  of  Speech  names  Subjects  and  Objects  of 

Sentences,  by  means  of  a  reference  ? 

40.  What  Parts  of  Speech  have  a  full  meaning  in  them- 

selves? 

41.  What  Parts  have  no  meaning  in  themselves? 

42.  What  kind  of  meaning  has  the  Adjective  or  the 

Adverb  standing  alor.e  ? 


PAETS  or   SPEECH. 


THE    NOUN. 


DEFINITION. 


1.  The  Noun  is  the  Subject  or  the  Object  of  a 
Sentence  : — as  *  Csesar  conquered  Gaul ; '  *  famine 
raises  prices.' 

Ciesar  and  Gaul  are  nouns  ;  Caesar  is  the  subject  and  Gaul 
the  object. 

The  Noun  is  not  the  only  word  that  may  be  the  subject  or 
the  object  of  a  sentence  ;  the  same  purpose  maybe  served  by 
a  Pronoun,  and  by  a  particular  part  of  the  Verb  called  the 
Infinitive.  In — *  I  choose  to  remain,'  and  *  I  prefer  remain- 
ing,' the  subject  *  I'  is  a  pronoun,  the  objects  *to  remain* 
and  'remaining'  are  Infinitives.  Hence,  in  defining  the 
noun,  we  must  assign  some  other  marks  to  distinguish  it 
from  these  other  words. 

The  Noun  is  distinguished  from  the  Pronoun  by  the  follow- 
ing mark : — 

2.  The  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  actual  thing,  - 
while  the  Pronoun  names  by  means  of  a  reference. 

'  Csesar  usurped  the  government  of  Rome ;  but  he  was 
speedily  slain.'    *  Csesar  '  and  *  he '  are  subjects ;  *  Caesar  '  is 


PROPER   NOUNS.  31 

a  noim,  and  is  the  name  of  the  actual  person  ;  *  he  '  is  a 
word  tlmt  names  by  referring  to  the  former  sentence,  "where 
*  Caesar  '  is  the  subject. 

The  Noun  is  distinguished  from  all  parts  of  the  Verb, 
as  follows :  — 

3.  The  Noun  is  changed,  or  inflected,  for  num- 
ber, case,  and  gender.  The  Infinitives  of  the  Verb 
are  not  inflected  at  all. 

When  the  meaning  allows  of  it,  a  noun  has  singular  and 
plural  forms — 'city,'  'cities;'  case  forms — *Ca33ar,'  'CoBsar's; 
gender  forms — *  baron,'  *  baroness.'  The  infinitive  of  the 
verb  is  unchangeable.  The  verb  has  many  changes  ;  the 
chief  is  to  give  difference  of  time. 

The  full  Definition  of  the  Noun,  according  to  the  rules  of 
defining  (p.  15),  is  this  : — The  Noun  is  a  Part  of  Speech  (Higher 
Class)  ;  it  may  be  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  sentence  (1), 
it  names  an  actual  thing  (2),  it  may  be  changed  or  inflected 
for  number,  case,  and  gender  (3)  (Differences). 

CLASSES  OF  NOUNS. 

4.  1.  Proper,  Singular,  Meaningless  IsTouns : 
— Snowdon,  Greece,  Jupiter,  William  Tell. 

These  are  called  proper,  because  they  are  the  property  of 
some  individual  person  or  thing.  They  are  called  singular  for 
the  same  reason.  *  Snowdon'  is  the  peculiar  and  exclusive 
name  of  a  certain  mountain. 

They  are  called  meaningless,  in  opposition  to  the  next 
class,  because  they  are  mere  marks  to  designate  a  person  or 
thing,  and  do  not  convey  any  information  about  the  person 
or  thing. 

ExampUs  of  Proper  Names. 

Persons— ^o\omoT\,  Homer,  Cato,  Constantino,  Joan  of 
Arc,  Oliver  Cromwell. 


32  TUE    NOUN. 

Tlaces—Asm^  Tartary,  Pekin,  Sahara,  Constantinoplo, 
Jordan,  Horeb. 

Branches  of  Knowledge — Geometry,  Chemistry,  Surgery, 
Agriculture,  Navigation. 

Days,  Months,  Festivals — Saturday,  March,  Christmas. 

Diseases — Fever,  Palsy,  Gout,  Plague,  Hooping-cough, 
Consumption.     There  are  more  than  one  thousand  diseases. 

Some  meaningless  nouns  may  never  have  been  used  but 
for  one  object ;  as  *  Rome.'  for  the  city  of  th'it  name  ;  *  Jeho- 
vah,' for  the  Deity.  These  are  Proper  and  Singular  nawies 
in  the  strictest  sense  :  they  are  exclusively  possessed  by  an 
individual. 

But,  as  we  have  many  objects  to  name,  we  often  use  the 
same  name  for  a  variety  of  objects,  tvithoiU  any  resemblance 
to  one  another.  Thus,  '  Jupiter,'  the  name  of  a  god,  is  used 
to  name  one  of  the  planets. 

*  Wellington'  and  'Victoria'  are  applied  to  persons,  to 
animals,  to  towns,  to  streets,  to  forts,  to  harbours,  to  ma- 
chines, &c. 


Persons  were  at  first  named  by  a  single  word,  as  Abraham, 
Samuel,  Socrates.  To  avoid  confusion  from  the  same  name 
being  applied  to  many  persons,  the  Romans  employed  double 
ond  even  triple  names — Titus  Livius,  Marcus  TuUius  Cicero. 
We  do  likewise :  John  Hampden,  Charles  James  Fox,  fignify 
each  one  person. 

Family  surnames  are  used  in  the  plural,  as  designating  a 
plurality  of  persons : — the  Gracchi,  the  Howards,  the  Mac- 
leods.  So,  speaking  of  any  one,  we  may  say — a  Howard,  a 
Macleod,  a  Brown.  Such  names  are  so  far  class  names;  the 
point  of  resemblance  of  the  subjects  being  common  descent,  or 
family  relationship,  real  or  supposed. 

When  the  same  name  is  given  to  several  places,  rivers,  or 
bnildin,2:s,  &c.,  a  second  designafion  is  used  :  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  Newcastle-under-Lyne  J  North  Esk,  South  Eskj  St. 
Paul's  in  Loudon. 


COMMON   NOUNS.  33 

5.  ir.  Common,  General,  Significant  Nouns : 
— mountain,  kingdom,  man. 

These  nouns  are  called  common  and  general  because  they 
are  common  to  a  great  many  things,  by  reason  of  the  agree- 
ment of  those  things. 

Snowdon,  Skiddaw,  St.  Bernard,  Lebanon — are  in  some 
respects  different  from  each  other,  yet  they  all  agree  in  a 
very  important  point.  They  are  masses  of  high  ground. 
On  account  of  their  likeness,  they  receive  the  name  'moun- 
tain.' This  name  is  significant ;  it  signifies  the  fact  com- 
mon to  all  mountains.  The  name  *  Snowdon  '  is  not  signi- 
ficant—it is  meaningless ;  it  might  have  been  given  to  a 
rivor,  or  a  country,  or  a  horse. 

All  names  of  Classes,  being  also  general,  are  significant : 
the  classes — mineral,  plant,  animal,  bird,  man — are  each 
made  up  of  individuals  resembling  one  another. 

There  may  be  higher  and  lower  classes  ;  as  the  class  Ani- 
mal, which  contains  the  classes — men,  quadrupeds,  birds, 
reptiles,  fishes.  Every  such  class  name  is  a  significant 
name. 

6-  Some  Singular  objects  have  names  that  are 
Significant : — as  Providence,  Omnipotence,  for  the 
Deity. 

These  are  rare  and  peculiar.  Fate,  Nature,  Destiny,  are 
of  the  same  kind. 

Usually  when  a  Singular  person  or  thing  has  a  significant 
designation,  it  is  by  uniting  several  significant  names,  which 
separately  may  apply  to  many  individuals,  but  collectively 
apply  to  only  one.  'The  present  Pope*  is  an  individual, 
expressed  by  three  significant  words ;  but  when  these  are 


34  THE    NOUN. 

all  joined,  they  restrict  the  moaning  to  one  indi  vidu;il.  There 
are  many  Popes  ;  but  there  is  only  one  present  Pope. 

Many  Singular  names  have  a  mixed  character  ;  they  are 
partly  meaningless  and  partly  significant.  Thus  *  Exeter 
Hull' has  a  certain  meaning  through  the  significant  name 

*  hall ' — a  place  of  meeting  ;  the  word  *  Exeter  *  is  an  acci- 
dental addition,  and  serves  for  distinguishing  Exeter  Hall 
from  other  public  places,  as  *  Westminster  Hull,'  *  St. 
James's  Hall,*  which  are  mixed  names  also. 

*  Paradise  '  is  a  purely  proper  and  meaningless  name  ;  tho 

*  Garden  of  Eden  *  is  a  mixed  singular  name. 

It  willbe  afterwards  explained  that  the  word  *  the,'  called  the 
Definite  Article,  prefixed  to  a  general  nou?i,  is  often  sufiicient 
to  point  out  an  individual  ;  the  queen,  spoken  in  this  country, 
means  a  single  person  ;  the  river,  spoken  in  London,  means 
the  river  Thames  :  the  IBank,  is  the  Bank  of  England. 

Proper  names  of  rivers  have  usually  the  article : — the  Rhine, 
the  Nile,  the  Severn. 

As  the  significant  general  name  designates  many  indi- 
viduals, it  must  be  modified  according  as  we  speak  of  one  or  of 
a  number  of  these.  Sometimes  we  name  a  single  member  of 
the  class  ;  for  which  the  form  is  *  a  mountain,'   *  an  animal,* 

*  a  ship  ; '  sometimes  we  speak  of  several  individuals,  and 
then  we  say  *  mountains,*  animals,*  *  ships.* 

The  following  Exercise  embraces  the  two  foregoing  classes 
of  Nouns. 

Exercise  5. 

1.  Columbus  discovered  America. 

2.  George  Fox,  the  first  of  the  Quakers,   was  a  shoe- 

maker. 

3.  Joan  of  Arc  perished  at  the  stake. 

4.  Washington  is  the  capital  of  the  United  States. 


COLLECTIVE    NOUNS.  85 

y  6,  The  ark  of  the  covenant  was  brought  up  to  Mount 
Zion. 

6.  Roman  Catholics  worship  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  eat 

no  flesh  during  Lent. 

7.  A  shout  that   frighted  the  reign  of  Chaos  and  old 

Night. 

8.  Earth  felt  the  wound. 

9.  Laud  was  flung  into  the  Tower. 

10.  Christmas  comes  but  once  a  year. 

11.  Measles,  Scarletina,  and  Small-pox,  are  just  now  very 

prevalent. 

12.  James  is  learning  Arithmetic ;  Mary  begins  music  in 

January. 


7.  III.  Collective  ITomis ;  as  flock,  crowd, 
tribe,  congregation.  A  great  many  individuals 
are  collected  together,  and  are  spoken  of  as  one 
body. 

*  The  flock  is  brought  home ;  *  *  the  crowd  is  large ;  *  *  the 
tribe  of  Judah  was  scattered.* 

Farther  examples :  —  Company,  party,  family,  troop, 
legion,  cluster,  galaxy,  swarm,  assembly,  meeting,  court, 
jury,  parliament,  club,  multitude,  mob,  herd,  array,  brother- 
hood, tenantry,  number,  host,  gathering.  Armada,  navy, 
army,  fleet,  regiment,  clan. 

As  there  may  be  more  than  one  collection  of  the  same 
things,  collective  names  may  be  either  Singular  or  Plural ; 
*  an  army,'  *  armies  ;  *  *  a  host,'  '  hosts.'  Such  names  are 
significant  as  well  as  collective. 

The  collective  nouns  *  Armament,'  *  starry  sphere,*  are  so 
all-comprehending  that  there  cannot  be  more  than  one. 


Z6  TUE    NOUfJ.   . 

8.  IV.  Material  Nouns  : — silver,  coal,  chalk, 
sandstone,  ivory.  *  Silver  '  is  a  name  for  the  entire 
collection  of  the  metal  of  that  name  existing 
everywhere. 

*  Chalk '  means  all  chalk,  not  any  piece  or  portion  of  it. 

*  Wood '  is  wood  generally  and  collectively. 

Farther  examples : — Brass,  iron,  stone,  clay,  sugar,  salt^ 
tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  beet-root,  mustard,  rice,  grass,  cloth, 
wood,  jute,  jiaper,  water,  snow,  wine. 

These  names  are  necessarily  singular ;  they  designate  the 
material  as  one  whole. 

When  such  names  are  used  in  the  plural,  as  they  often  are 
— irons,  coppers,  marbles,  coals,  sands,  cottons,  sugars, 
wines — their  meaning  is  changed.  They  no  longer  state 
the  material  as  a  whole,  but  either  thiuga  made  of  it,  or 
portions  of  it,  or  kinds  of  it.  Coppers  are  tilings  made  of 
copper ;  marbles  things  made  of  marble.  Coals  are  pieces 
of  coal ;  sands  are  grains  of  sand.  Woods,  cottons,  sugars, 
wines,  are  different  kinds  of  wood,  cotton,  ^ugar,  wine. 
Such  nouns  are  common,  or  signiflcant  nouns.  They  are 
class  nouns. 

Whatever  noun  is  used  in  the  plural,  as  irons,  coppers, 
may  also  be  used  in  the  singular  with  a  or  an  before  it  ;  an 
iron,  a  copper,  a  sugar.  This  also  shows  that  the  noun  is 
not  used  as  a  noun  of  material,  but  as  a  common,  general, 
or  class  noun. 

9.  V.  Abstract  !N'onns : — darkness,  squareness, 
righteousness,  purity  (Int.  p.  16). 

These  are  formed  from  Adjectives : — darkness,  from 
dark  ;  righteousness,  from  righteous  ;  purity  (also  pureness) 
from  pure. 


ABSTRACT    NOUxNS.  37 

The  Adjective  (see  p.  14)  expresses  a  meaning  along  with 
a  noun  : — *  dark  places ^  *  righteous  men.*  The  Abstract  noun 
expresses  the  same  meaning  as  if  it  were  separate  ;  it 
mentions  the  agreement  apart  from  the  things  agreeing  : — 
darkness,  righ  teousness. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  darkness  from  something  that 
is  dark,  or  righteousness  from  some  persons  that  are 
righteous  ;  but  it  is  convenient  to  suppose  the  separation, 
or  to  consider  only  that  property  of  the  things  mentioned 
called  *  dark,'  *  righteous,' 

10-  Other  Abstract  Nouns  are  formed  from 
verbs  : — Contradiction,  belief,  doubt. 

*  Contradiction '  is  from  the  verb  *  contradict,'  and  ex- 
presses the  action  of  the  verb. 

*  Belief  is  from  the  verb  *  believe.' 

'  Doubt '  is  either  noun  or  verb.  Nouisr — *  doubt  is  a  dis- 
tressing condition.'     Verb—'  no  one  doubts  the  rumour.' 

When  Abstract  Nouns  are  used  with  *  a '  before  them,  or 
in  the  plural,  they  are  converted  into  common  or  general 
nouns,  and  have  a  different  meaning.  *  Truth  '  is  an  ab- 
stract noun;  '  a  truth,'  and  'truths,'  mean  particular  examples 
of  truth. 

'  Charity  '  is  abstract ;  '  charities  '  are  particular  acts  or 
modes  of  charity. 

'  Glory  ' — abstract ;  *  glories  * — a  general  noun — kinds  or 
examples  of  glory.- 

'Time'  and  'Space'  may  be  parsed  either  as  collective 
nouns,  or  as  abstract  nouns.  '  Time  *  means  the  whole  dura- 
tion of  past  and  future  j  *  a  time  '  and  '  times  '  mean  parts  or 
porti(ms  of  time. 

4 


88  THE    NOUN. 

Besides  being  Subject  or  Object  of  a  Sentence,  the  Noun 
may  be  found  in  the  following  places  : — 

(1).  Nouns  are  extensively  used  along  with  prepositions,  as 
phrases  ;  which  phrases  most  usually  act  the  part  of  Adverbs. 
*  lie  stood  by  John,'  '  we  were  under  canvas.* 

Tliese  phrases  may  have  adjectives  prefixed  to  the  noun;  '  I 
stood  on  the  highest  ground.' 

Excepting  in  one  of  the  infinitive  forms  of  the  verb — as  *to 
ride,'  '  to  see ' — the  word  that  follows  a  preposition  is  either 
a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun. 

(2).  Nouns  occur  in  the  Predicate  of  a  Sentence,  with 
certain  verbs  of  incomplete  meaning  ;  the  verb  '  be '  (is,  was, 
were,  &c  )  is  the  chief  example.     *  He  is  a  lawyer,* 

The  verb  *  is '  has  not  a  complete  meaning  till  we  add  a  word 
to  say  what  he  is. 

The  words  that  complete  the  meaning  of  these  incomplete 
verbs  are  usually  either  Nouns  or  Adjectives. 

(3).  Nouns  are  used  extensively  as  Adjectives  : — ship  stores, 
table  drawer.     These  will  be  explained  afterwards. 

[With  these  explanations  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  point 
cut  every  noun  in  the  examples.  A  beginning  should  be 
made,  however,  by  pursing  only  the  nouns  that  are  either 
subjects  or  objects  of  sentences.] 

Exercise  6. 

Komis  generally. 

1.  Frederick  the  Great  wrested  Silesia  from  the  Empire, 

and  brought  on  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

2.  Kindness  to  animals  is  no  unworthy  exercise  of  bene- 

volence. 

3.  The  produce  of  previous  labour  makes  the  wealth  of  a 

country. 

4.  Security  of  property  is  essential  to   capital,  to  power, 

to  skill,  to  combination  and  division  of  labour,  and 
also  to  self-preservation. 

6.  The   throne   of  the   Caesars   gave  little  certainty   of 
possession  to  the  occupier, 

6.  Dirt  is  matter  in  the  wrong  place. 

7.  Round  the  ao:ent's  house   they  threw  up  with  great 

speed  a  wall  of  turf  fourteen   feet   in  height,  and 


EXERCISE    ON   THE    NOUN.  39 

twelve  in  thickness.  The  space  enclosed  was  about 
half-an-acre.  Within  this  rampart  all  the  arms, 
the  ammunition,  and  the  provisions  of  the  settle- 
ment were  collected,  and  several  huts  of  thin  plank 
were  built,  , 

8.  In  a  short  time  two  hundred  foot  and  a  hundred  and 

fifty  horse  had  assembled. 

9.  Lowliness  is  young  Ambition's  ladder. 

10.  The  grape  is  a  richer  fruit  than  the  gooseberry. 

11.  Affectation  in  any  part  of  our  behaviour  is  lighting  up 

a  caudle  to  our  defects. 

12.  The  beauties  of  a  great  poem  cannot  be  enjoyed  at 

first  sight. 

13.  Life  is  precious  ;  yet  men  have  laid  down  their  lives  to 

preserve  the  liberties  of  their  country. 

14.  There  is  no  royal  road  to  geometry  ;  practice  is  the 

way  to  perfection  in  all  sciences  and  arts. 

15.  James  has  a  complete  set  of  the  ferns  of   his  own 

district. 

16.  Laws  securing  to  every  man  a  property'  in  the  pro- 

duce of  his  labour  are  universal  in  well-ordered 
societies. 

17.  Loam  contains  more  sand  than  potter's  clay. 

18.  Hundreds  of  different  grasses  are  named  in  works  on 

Botany. 

19.  Halloween,  Shrove  Tuesday,  and  other  old  festivals* 

are  now  less  observed  than  in  former  times. 

20.  Morris,  turning  in  his  saddle,  called  out  to  his  people, 

**  remember  what  I  have  told  you,  men."  Then  he 
put  his  spurs  into  '  Old  Treasurer,'  and,  followed 
by  the  fraction  of  the  regiment  that  ranged  clear  of 
the  battery,  drove  full  at  the  squadron  corifronting 
him. 

21.  Humanity  then  lodged  in  the  hearts  of  men, 

And  thankful  masters  carefully  provided 
For  creatures  wanting  reason. 


40  THE   NOUN. 

22.  Cholera  makes  great  ravages  in   low-lying   and  ill- 

drained  towns. 

23.  Lime  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  all  fertile  soils. 

24.  In  the  direct   front  of  the  ranks  thus   awaiting  the 

charge  of  our  horsemen,  there  was  sitting  in  his 
saddle  a  Russian  who  seemed  to  be  the  squadron- 
leader. 

25;  When  the  Arminian  controversy  arose  in  TTolhind,  the 
English  Government  and  the  English  Church  lent 
strong  support  to  the  Calvinistic  party. 

26.  From    March,    1629,  to   April,  1640,  the   Houses  of 

Parliament  were  not  convoked. 

27.  Carbon  is  the  most  abundant  element  in  plants. 

28.  Wheat  is  a  finer  grain  than  oats. 

29.  In  a  time  of  frost,  the   appearance   of  the  northern 

lights  may  be  counted  on  with  certainty. 

30.  The  Report  of  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 

Commons,  appointed  in  1833  to  enquire  into  the 
state  of  the  education  of  the  people  in  England  and 
Wales,  gives  an  amount  of  information  showing 
the  increase  of  decency  of  deportment  in  the  present 
age. 


Questions. 

1.  Mention  all  the  Parts  of  Speech  that  may  be  the 

Subject  or  the  Object  of  a  Sentence. 

2.  Distinguish  the  Noun  from  the  Pronoun. 

3.  Distinguish  the  Noun  and  the   Pronoun   from   the 

Verb. 

4.  Whv   are   the   words — Adam,    tree,    winter — called 

Nouns  ?      Show   that    they   correspond   with  the 
Definition. 

5.  Why  are  the  words— he,  great,  loving — said  not  to 

be  Nouns  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    NOUN.  41 

6.  Why  are  tlie  nouns — India,  Charles — called  Proper  ? 

why  Singular  ?  why  Meaningless  ? 

7.  How  is  it  that  singular  nouns  may  be  names  for  many 

subjects  ?  Take  the  examples — Venus,  Washing- 
ton, Smith. 

8.  What  is  done  to  prevent  confusion  when  one  name  is 

given  to  many  persons,  or  to  several  places  or 
buildings  ? 

9.  Why   are  the   nouns — star,   kingdom,   table— called 

Common  ?  why  General  r  why  Significant  ? 

10.  Why  are  class  names  General  and  Significant? 

11.  What  Singular  objects  have  names  that  are  not  Mean- 

ingless, but  Significant? 

12.  How  can  Significant  names  be  joined  to  express  a 

Singular  Object  ?  Take  as  examples — the  head  of 
our  family  ;  the  father  of  all  mankind  ;  the  last  of 
the  Stuarts  ;  the  great  pyramid. 

13.  Some  Singular  Names  are  compounds  of  meaningless 

and  significant  words.  Show  this  in  the  names- 
Mount  Horeb,  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral. 

14.  What  is  a  Collective  Noun  ?     Are  the  nouns — people, 

family,  fleet — significant  as  well  as  collective  ? 

15.  Of  what  class  are  the  Nouns— ivory,  spice,  grass  ? 

16.  Of  what  class  are — wines,  spices,  grasses  ? 

17.  To  what  class  belong  the  nouns — brightness,  scarcity  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  these  words,  as  compared 
with  the  adjectives— bright,  scarce? 

18.  To  what  class  belong — education,  success,  life  ? 

19.  When  Abstract  Nouns  are  used  with  *  a  '  before  them, 

or  in  the  plural,  what  are  they  ? 

20.  To  what  class  belong  the  words— Time  and  Space  P 

21.  Give  all  the  places,  in  a  sentence,  where  Nouns  may 

be  found. 


THE    PEONOUN". 

DEFINITION. 

1.  The  Pronoun  differs  from  the  Noun  in  ex- 
pressing a  thing  not  by  its  own  name,  but  by  a 
reference  or  relation  to  something  else.  *  J'  (the 
person  spealjing) '  say  ;  *  *  /ie  '  (some  person  already 
mentioned)  *  remained.' 

We  know  what  *  John  Smith  *  or  *  man  '  stands  for,  as  soon 
as  we  hear  or  see  the  name ;  we  do  not  know  wliat  *  I  * 
stands  for  until  we  find  out  who  is  addressing  us.  When  we 
ask — Who  is  there?  and  get  the  answer — *  I,'  we  do  not 
know  from  the  pronoun  who  is  the  person  speaking :  we  re- 
main in  ignorance  until  the  person  gives  his  real  name,  or 
until  we  recognise  him  by  his  voice  or  by  some  other  circum- 
stance. The  writer  of  a  letter  uses  the  pronoun  '  I '  to 
designate  himself;  but  unless  he  signs  his  name  or  unless 
we  know  the  handwriting,  we  do  not  know  who  it  is  that 
*  I  *  designates. 

In  a  legal  document,  the  writer  tells  who  he  is — '  T,  James 
Brown,  of  Duke  Street,  St.  James's,  do  hereby  declare.' 

In  the  following  sentence,  *we'  is  used  with  a  similar 
explanation  :—' We,  English,  occupy  a  middle  ground  be- 
tween the  French  and  the  Germans.' 

Merely  to  say  *  I  saw  him'  without  having  spoken  before, 
conveys  no  sense  ;  but  if  after  speaking  of  some  person  we 
add  '  I  saw  him  yesterday,'  we  know  that  *  him '  refers  to 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  43 

the  person  spoken  about.  In  like  manner,  *  she/  *  it,' 
'  they,'  'this,!  '  that,' have  no  sense  unless  we  know,  in  some 
other  way,  who  or  what  they  refer  to. 

2.  The  Prononn,  like  the  IN'oun,  may  be  the 
Subject  or  the  Object  of  a  sentence,  and  may  be 
changed  for  number,  case,  and  gender. 

*  We  saw  them  ; '  *  I  met  her.'  *  We  '  and  *  them  '  are 
plural ;  *  them  '  and  *  her'  are  changes  for  case  (from  '  they  * 
and  *she).'  *  She  '  and  *  her  '  are  feminine;  *  he,*  'him,' 
being  masculine. 

Tn  regard  to  case^  the  Pronoun  has  more  changes  than  the 
Noun. 

The  Pronoun  farther  agrees  with  the  Noun,  in  occupying  the 
followiug  places  in  the  sentence,  besides  being  Subject  or 
Object. 

1.  In  Phrases,  with  a  Preposititm  : — He  spoke  comfort  to 
me  ;  they  left  the  book  wiih  us;  all  retired  except  them; 
John,  fi'ojn  whom  I  heard. 

2.  In  the  Predicate  of  a  Sentence,  with  incomplete  verbs, 
especially  the  verbs  *  is,'  *  was,'  &c. : — It  is  J;  if  I  were  he. 

CLASSES  OF  PRONOUNS. 

3.  I.  Personal  Pronouns  : — I,  we,  thou,  ye,  you. 
'  I '  and  '  we  '  are  pronouns  of  the  first  person  ;  the 

.  others — thou,  ye,  you — are  pronouns  of  the  second 
person. 

I  denotes  the  speaker  by  himself:  *I  give  you  leave  to 
do  it.' 

We  denotes  the  speaker  and  others  with  him,  A  school- 
boy says  for  himself  and  his  schoolfellows — *We  played 
cricket,'  *  We  do  not  meet  on  Saturday  :  *  a  member  of 
a  church  says — *  We  have  a  good  minister.' 

Thou  is   addressed  to   one  person.      It  Is  used  not  in 


44  THE    PRONOUN. 

ordinary  address,  but  when  wo  speak  under  strong  feeling: 

*  0  thou  that  rulest  over  all ! '  *  0  thou  fair  orb,  that  silent 
shines  ! '  *  thou  viper  I  * 

You  is  the  ordinary  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  whether 
we  address  one  or  a  number. 

Ye,  like  '  thou,'  is  employed  chiefly  in  strong  feeling:  *  Ye 
gates,  lift  up  your  heads.' 

*0  night, 
And  storm,  and  darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong.* 

4.  II.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  : — he,  she,  it, 
they,  this,  that. 

The  Personal  pronouns  refer  only  to  persons  speaking  and 
persons  spoken  to  :  tho  Demonstrative  pronouns  refer  to, 
point  out  (as  with  the  finger)  whatever  is  spoken  about, 

5.  He  is  the  pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender 
in  man  and  in  the  higher  animals  : — *  the  horse 
mocketh  at  fear,  neither  turneth  he  back  from  the 
sword.' 

*  6-  She  is  the  pronoun  of  the  feminine  gender 
in  man  and  in  the  higher  animals: — 'Her  young 
ones  also  suck  up  blood,  and  where  the  slain  are, 
there  is  slie.^ 

When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  of  as  persons,  they  are 
pointed  out  by  pronouns  of  distinct  gender.  We  speak  of 
the  Sun  as  '  he,*  of  the  Moon  aa  *  she.* 

We  say  also — *  Take  fast  hold  of  Instruction,  for  she  is  thy 
life  : '  and  of  Wisdom — '  she  guides  the  young.' 

7.  It  is  the  pronoun  of  the  neuter  gender^  and 


DEMONSTKATIVE    PRONOUNS.  45 

is   applied   to  thintrs    without   life: ''Hero  is  the 
well ;  let  us  drink  from  iV 

*  It '  refers  also  to  living  beings  not  sufficiently  important 
to  have  their  sex  distinguished.  *  Look  at  the  child  ;  what 
a  pretty  thing  it  is  ! '     *  iHs  a  fine  dog.' 

*  It  *  refers  not  only  to  single  names,  but  to  phrases  and  to 
whole  clauses,  'The  man  is  honest;  who  can  deny  «7.*' 
*  It  may  be  that  the  accused  is  guilty,  but  can  you  prove 
U  ; ' 

There  are  greater  varieties  in  the  use  of  *  it  *  than  in  the 
use  of  *  he  '  and  *  she.* 

1.  '  It '  with  a  backward  reference — 
(1.)  to  a  single  word. 

The  stort/  is  not  true,  whoever  told  it. 
The  book  was  brought,  but  it  was  not  the  right  one. 
The  ^7'e  was  lighted,  but  it  went  out. 
The  moon  was  up  ;  it  was  nearly  full. 
I  tried  the  doo)\  but  it  was  locked. 
I  found  a  beautiful  pebble,  and  brought  it  home. 
I  saw  a  canary  bird,  and  wished  to  have  it. 
I  am  seized  with  melancholy^  and  fain  would  have  it  beaten 
away. 

*  The  wind  blew  down  the  wall;  it  was  very  strong.' 
Here  there  are  two  nouns,  and  '  it  '  may  equally  apply  to 
either  *  wind '  or  '  wall.'     Such  cases  are  ambiguous. 

^Adversity  gives  wisdom,  although  it  is  painful.'     The  two 
nouns  '  adversity  '  and  *  wisdom  '  both  precede  the  pronoun 
'  it ; '  we  know  by  the  sense  that  the  reference  is  to  *  ad-  . 
versity.' 


46  THE    PRONOUN. 

*  It'  with  a  backward  reference — 
(2.)  to  a  clause. 

*  Surely  the  Lord  is  in  this  phice,  and  I  knew  tt  not.' 
*  It '  does  not  refer  to  *  place,*  but  to  the  fact  expressed  in 
the  whole  clause. 

Earnest  men  will  obtain  converts ;  and  no  one  is  surprised 
at  it  (that  earnest  men  obtain  converts). 

I  say  that  Anp^elo  is  a  villain.  Is  il  not  strange?  (That 
he  should  be  a  villain). 

2.  *  It '  with  a  forward  reference  to  a  phrase, 
or  a  clause. 

It  is  foolish  to  attempt  tlie  impossible  (phrase). 

It  is  requisite  to  defer  judgment. 

It  is  vain  to  shift  the  scene. 

It  is  peculiar  to  human  beings  to  have  a  history. 

It  may  be  asserted  that  unbroken  Jiappiness  is  not  to  be  hoped 
for  (clause). 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  story  be  true. 

If  it  be  asked,  what  has  science  done  for  us,  it  might  be 
retorted,  What  was  our  condition  a  century  ago  ? 

3.  *  It  •  with  indefinite  reference. 

The  reference  of  *  it '  is  indefinite  in  such  phrases  as  '  Who 
is  it  V  '  what  is  ifi  '  This  is  shown  by  the  answers  made 
to  such  questions  :  *  it  is  an  old  woman ; '  '  it  is  a  child  ; '  *  it 
is  a  baker's  cart ;  *  *  it  is  a  horse ;  *  *  it  is  a  man  selling 
fruit.' 

In  such  phrases  as — *  lord  it^  *  foot  it,*  *  brave  it  out,'  the 
j-eference  is  so  vague  that  *  it '  may  be  considered  a  mere 
expletive. 


INDEFINITE    DEMONSTRATIVES.  ^7 

8.  They    is    the  plural    of   *  He,'    *  She/    find 

*  It.'     *  Your  fathers,  where  are  tlmj  ? '     '  There  are 
lionesses  in  the   menagerie  ;  I   saw  tliem   to-day.' 

*  Many  things  have  to  be  considered,  but  we  cannot 
consider  tlcem  alK' 

*  They  '  has  somefcimes  a  forward  reference. 
(1.)  With  the  relative  of  restriction  : — Tlieij  that 

seek  shall  find. 

(2.)  With  a  phrase  of  restriction : — They  of 
Arcadia.* 

And  they  will  best  succeed,  that  best  can  pay, 

9-  TMs    and    that    may   in   certain  cases   be 
classified  as  Pronouns. 

*This'  and  'that'  usually  take  a  noun  with  them,  and 
must  then  be  parsed  as  Adjectives,  When  they  stand  alone 
as  words  of  reference,  they  must  be  taken  as  Pronouns  :  '  I 
would  rather  be  in  his  place,  than  in  that  of  his  accuser  ; ' 

*  as  for  meeting  you  to-morrow,  that  I  can't  promise;'  *  this 
is  a  strange  doctrine  ; '  *  who  would  endure  this  f  * 

10.  In  such  phrases  as  *  ove  cannot  tell,'  '  they 
say  that  the  war  will  not  last  long,' — one  and 
they  are  called  Indefinite  Demonstrative  Pro- 
nouns. 

It  is  more  polite  to  say — *  Suppose  one  were  accused  of 
being  dishonest,'  than — '  Suppose  /  were  accused  of  being 
dishonest ;  *  and  much  more  than — '  Suppose  you  were  ac- 
cused of  being  dishonest.' 

*  One '  in  this  sense  is  derived  not  from  the  numeral  *  one,» 
but  from  the  French  oUj  a  corruption  of  hoonme — man.     *  One 

*  See  this  usage  kept  up  in  Lord  Derby's  Translation  of  Homer. 


48  THE  PRONOUN. 

is  surprised  to  hear/   means,  according  to  derivation,  '  A 
man  is  surprised  to  hear.' 

*  One '  should  be  followed  by  '  one '  and  not  by  *  he.* 
*  What  otie  undertakes,  one  must  endeavour  to  perform.' 

11.  The  nunneral  one  appears  in  such  construc- 
tions as  the  followinsf: — *I  want  aknife;  give  me 
a  good  oneJ  '  The  little  ones  (children)  are  gone 
out.' 

12-  other  is  used  in  the  same  way : — *  One  re- 
mains, the  others    have  left.* 

13-  Both  is  likewise  a  word  of  reference  : — *  Will 
you  take  your  coat  or  your  cloak  ?  '     *  I  will  take      ^ 
both: 

14.  Compounds  formed  by  adding  the  word 
'self  to  Personal  or  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  are 
called  Reflective  Pronouns: — myself,  thyself, 
ourselves,  yourselves,  himself,  herself,  itself, 
themselves,  one's  self. 

15-  III-  Relative  Pronouns:  who,  which, 
that,  what.     These  are  tho  proper  Relatives. 

A  Relative  Pronoun  unites  sentences  or  clauses 
like  a  conjunction. 

Who  and  its  compounds — whoso,  whoever, 
whosoever — apply  to  persons  ;  which  and  its  com- 
pounds— whichever,  whichsoever — relate  generally 
to  things;  that,  and  what,  with  its  compound 
whatsoever,  are  used  with  both  persons  and  things  ; 
*  whatever  *  relates  to  things. 


RELATIVE    PRONOUNS.  49 

16.  Who  is  the  Co-ordinating  Relative  of 
Persons. 

'  I  called  on  Henry,  icho  told  me  what  happened.' 
This  is  the  same  as — and  /te  told  me  w^hat  happened. 
It  is  a  pronoun  and  a  conjunction  {and)  together. 

The  Duke  of  Wellington,  ivho  commanded  the  English 
armies  in  the  Peninsula,  never  lost  a  battle. 

Our  Father,  who  art  in  heaven. 

And  Mitford,  ivJio  was  gradually  displacing  Gillies,  was 
himself  displaced  by  later  historians,  who  excelled  both. 

17.  Which  is  the  Co-ordinating  Relative  of 
Things  :— In  the  wood  I  cut  a  stout  stick,  which 
(and  it)  helped  me  on  the  road  wonderfully. 

The  word  of  God,  ivhich  is  contained  in  the  Scriptures,  is 
the  only  rule. 

*  They  gave  a  loud  shout,  which  was  heard  across  the  river.' 
This  is  the  same  di%—and  it  was  heard. 

The  English  nation,  which  never  ceased  to  desire  liberty, 
is  an  example  to  other  nations. 

*  Which  '  may  refer  back  to  a  whole  clause, 
like  the  Demonstrative  Pronoun  *it': — *I  turned 
off  to  the  right  hand,  which  led  me  astray.'  The 
reference  of  *  which  '  is  not  *  hand,'  but  the  facfe 
expressed  by  the  whole  clause. 

He  then  dissolved  the  Parliament;  which  was  his  favourite 
plan  for  meeting  their  demands. 

18-   That  is  the  relative  of  Restrietion,  for  both 
Persons  and  Things  : — ^  The  man  iliat  I  called  on;' 
'  the  spring  that  1  passed  on  the  way.' 
5 


50  THE    PRONOUN. 

The  saying — that  I  called  on — restricts  or  points  out  the 
man  intended.  The  spring  that  I  passed  on  the  way,  is 
pointed  out  or  restricted  by  this  circumstance,  namely,  I 
passed  it  on  the  way. 

*  Kean  was  the  best  actor  that  I  ever  saw.*  The  class 
*  actor  '  is  here  under  a  two-fold  restriction  ;  the  phrase  *  that 
I  ever  saw '  is  the  equivalent  of  an  adjective  (called  an 
adjective  clause)  and  limits  actors  to  those  seen  by  mo.  The 
second  limitation  is  the  adjective  *  best,*  which  singles  out 
one  individual  actor. 

*  One  of  the  wisest  men  w7io  ever  lived,*  is  not  correct ; 
say,  Uhat  ever  lived.* 

Man  is  the  only  animal  that  can  be  both  sociable  and 
solitary. 

It  was  a  peace  that  everybody  was  glad  of,  and  that 
nobody  was  proud  of. 

I  love  everything  thaVs  old. 

The  Post-office  intimation  beginning — Letters  which  con- 
tain coin — would  be  better  thus— Letters  that  contain  coin. 
The  intention  is  to  restrict  the  class  *  Letters,'  to  those  letters 
containing  coin. 

In  such  a  nio:ht 
Medea  gathered  the  (^nchanted  herbs 
That  did  renew  old  -3iison. 

Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 

Man  seems  the  only  growth  thai  dwindles  here. 

The  only  kind  of  nobility  that  becomes  a  philosopher,  is 
the  rank  that  he  holds  in  the  esteem  of  his  fellows,  M/io  are 
the  best  judges  of  his  merits.'  The  two  first  relatives  are 
properly  restrictive  (that);  the  last  is  co-ordinating  fwhoj. 

In  modern  style,  *Who'  and  'Which*  are  often  used  for 
restriction  instead  of  '  That  '—the  relative  preferred  by  the  old 


EQUIVALENTS    FOR    RELATIVES.  51 

writers.  In  conveisation,  the  restrictive  meaning  is  raore 
frequently  expressed  by  *  that.'  *  You  are  welcome  to  any 
book  that  I  have.'  *  The  boy  that  you  see  there  will  show 
you  the  way.' 

19.  What  often  stands  for  '  that  which,'  Hhe— 
that :  ' — That  which  you  propose,  the  thing  that  you 
propose,  ivhat  yon  propose — is  reasonable. 

^lan  sometimes  loathes  tvhat  (the  thing  that)  he  imitates. 

We  become  fond  of  what  we  have  often  benefitted. 

We  may  understand  tvhat  we  could  not  have  found  out. 

20-  As,  preceded  by  Such,  has  the  force  of  the 
restrictive  relative,  applying  to  both  persons  and 
things. 

It  is  a  pleasing  show  to  sucJi  as  care  for  these  things ; 
I  can  always  find  there  such  articles  as  I  want. 

This  is  a  contracted  form.  The  full  expression  is — such 
articles  as  the  articles  that  I  want. 

21.  The  word  But  serves  as  a  relative  in  certain 
constructions: — 'there  was  not  a  man  .of  them 
hut  shook  for  dread,'  for  *  there  was  not  a  man  of 
them  that  did  not  shake  for  dread.' 

22.  The  adverb  When  answers  the  purpose  of 
the  restrictive  relative,  especiall}''  with  a  noun  of 
time  as  the  antecedent  : — '  It  is  the  hour  when 
from  the  boughs  the  nightingale's  high  note  is 
heard.' 

*  When '  is  not  always  restrictive  ;  sometimes  it  is  co- 
ordinating. *  The  day  of  trial  will  come,  when  all  will  be 
different.'     When  is  here  equivalent  to  *  and  then.' 


52  THE    PRONOUN. 

23.  Where  is  used  as  a  relative  when  the  ante- 
cedent denotes  place : — *  This  is  the  very  spot 
where  we  stood  two  years  ago.' 

*  Where' is  sometimes  co-ordinating,  though  oftener  re- 
strictive. *  On  my  way  back,  I  called  at  the  inn,  tvhere  I 
found  a  pack  of  rough  fellows  drinking  beer,'  *  Where'  is 
here  equivalent  to  'and  there.' 

24-  Whence  is  occasionally  nscd  as  a  relative 
of  phice  : — '  he  returned  to  the  place  whence  he 
came,'  instead  of  ^from  ivhich  he  came,'  or  *  that  he 
came  froiii.^ 

25-  Whither  is  used  in  like  manner  in  the  sense 
of  'to  a  phice  ; '  as  ^  They  went  out  not  knowing 
whither,' 

26-  The  compound  forms  —  whoever,  whoso, 
whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever, 
whatsoever,  whenever,  whensoever,  wherever, 
wheresoever,  whithersoever,  whencesoever — have 
a  certain  Indefinite  meaning,  and  have  their 
antecedents  often  left  unexpressed  :  thus,  *  whoever 
said  it,'  means  *  avy  jierson  that  said  it ; '  '  whoso  is 
prudent ;  '  *  whatever  you  say  to  the  contrary ;  * 
'  wherever,  whithersoever  you  go,  I  will  follow.' 

27*  IV-  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  who,  which, 
what. 

Who  applies  to  persons  and  is  entirely  indeG- 
nite  : — '  Who  croes  there  ? '  supposes  complete  ignor- 
ance of  the  person  referred  to. 


INTERROO.VnVE    PRONOUNS.  53 

28-  Which,  unlike  its  use  as  a  Relative,  applies 
to  peA'sons  as  well  as  to  things. 

Its  peculiar  force  is  selective.  It  supposes  a  known  class 
or  group,  and  inquires  the  particular  individual  or  indivi- 
duals :  '  Which  of  you  will  go  with  me  ? '  *  Which  am  I  to 
take  ? ' 

29.  What  and  Whatever  refer  exclusively  to 
tilings  :— ^  What  say  jou  ?  '  '  Whatever  is  the  matter 
with  the  boy  ?  * 

When  *  what'  refers  to  persons,  it  is  followed  by  a  noun  : 
'  tvhat  man,  lohai  Roman,  would  be  dragged  in  triumph, 
thus  ? '     *  Whatever  *  has  the  same  usage. 

The  words  *  when,'  *  where,'  *  whence,'  '  whither,'  may  be 
used  for  asking  questions  ;^  they  are  the  Adverbial  Interroga- 
tives. 

Exercise  7. 
Examples  containing  Pronoun^ 

I  Even  the  wisest  cannot,  while  a  revolution  is  still 
recent,  weigh  quite  fairly  the  evils  that  it  has  caused 
against  the  evils  that  it  has  removed. 

2.  H  )w  doth  the  city  sit  solitary,  that  was  full  of  people ! 

How  is  she  become  as  a  widow  I 

3.  They  say   that   the   Prince  leaves  this   to-morrow: 

would  you  have  believed  it  ? 

4.  The  Emperor  Nicholas,  in  1854,  ordered  his  troops  to 

cross  the  Prath,  which  was  to  invade  Turkey. 

5.  This  is  what  might  be  expected. 

6.  Romans,  countrymen,   and  lovers!  hear  me  for  my 

cause;  and  be  silent  that  you  may  hear.  As 
Ciesar  loved  me,  I  weep  for  him. ;  as  he  was  for- 
tunate, I  rejoice  at  it ;  as  he  was  valiant,  I  honour 
him. 


54  THE    PRONOUN. 

7.  Where  did  you  first  see  liim  ?     That  is  the  poiTit. 

8.  Boy,  what  8ic:n  ia  it,  when  a  man  of  great  spirit  grew  J 

melancholy  ? 

9.  This  is  not  such  a  prize  as  I  expected,  hut  it  is  the 

hest  that  ever  I  heard  of. 

10.  It  inevitably  follows   that  much  that  was  useful  to 

them  is  useless  to  us. 

11.  The  authority  of  Aristotle  was  at  one  time  almost 

paramount  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  themselves. 

12    The  willow,  which  Lends  to  the  tempest,  often  escapes 
better  than  the  oak,  which  resists  it. 

13.  One  cannot  always  be  studying  one's  own  works. 

14.  He  looks  upon  the  whole  world,  as  it  were,  in  another 

light,  and  discovers  in  it  a  multitude  of  charms  that 
conceal  themselves  from  the  generality  of  mankind. 

15.  When  this  man  has  looked  about  him  as  far  as  he  can, 

ho  concludes  there  is  no  more  to  he  seen  ;  when  he 
has  shot  his  best,  he  is  sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever 
can,  shoot  beyond  it. 

16.  It  is  only  when  the  attention  to  what  is  said  relaxes, 

that  one  begins  to  consider  who  is  behind  and  who 
is  before. 

17.  No   species  of  superstition    was   ever  more   terrible 

than  that  of  the  Druids. 

18.  There  was  nothing  in  the  whole  collection  but  was  in 

keeping  with  himself. 

19.  Although  man  has  great  variety  of  thoughts,  useful 

to  himself  and  to  others,  yet  they  are  all  within 
his  own  breast. 

20.  It  is  my  wish,  while  I  yet  live,  that  you,  ray  boy, 

should  visit  the  places  where  I  myself  have  been. 

21.  In  looking  over  a  vast  morass,  unmarked  by  tower, 

or  citadel,  or  town,  which  the  horizon  descends 
upon  but  does  not  bound,  the  shaping  mind  may 
discover  more  to  think  of  than  in  the  landscape 
that  laughs  with  every  variety  of  scenic  beauty. 


EXERCISE    ON   THE    PRONOUN.  55 

22.  Though  it  is  confessed  that  great  and  splendid  actions 

are  not  the  ordinary  employment  of  life,  yet  any 
system  is  defective  that  leaves  no  room  for  them. 
They  often  save,  and  always  illustrate,  the  age  and 
nation  where  they  appear. 

23.  What  art  does  for  men,  nature  has  done  for  animals, 

which  are  themselves  incapable  of  art. 

24.  There  is  no  writer  but  must  sometimes  fail  in  genuine 

wit. 

25.  To  bow  and  sue  for  grace 
With  suppliant  knee,  and  deify  his  power^ 

that  were  low  indeed  ; 

That  were  an  ignominy  and  shame  beneath 
This  downfall. 

26.  No  cliff  so  bare  but  on  its  steep 
Thy  favours  may  be  found. 

27.  There  breathes  not  clansman  of  thy  line 
But  would  have  given  his  life  for  thine. 

28.  Who  is^t  that  can  inform  me  ? 
That  can  T. 

29.  The  raven  himself  is  hoarse 
That  croaV;s  the  fatal  entrance  of  Duncan 
Under  my  battlements. 

30.  He  *s  here  in  double  trust : 
First,  as  I  am  his  kinsman  and  his  subject, 
Strong  both  against  the  deed ;  then,  as  his  host, 
Who  should  against  his  murderer  shut  the  door. 
Not  bear  the  knife  myself. 

31.  I  have  a  strange  infirmity,  which  is  nothing 
To  those  that  know  me. 

Questions. 

1.  In  what  points  does  the  Pronoun  agree  with  the  Noun  ? 

In  what  do  they  differ  ? 

2.  When  we  meet  with  the  word  *he,'  where  must  we 

look  to  see  whom  it  denotes  ? 


56  THE    PRONOUN. 

3.  Give  the  Personal  Pronouns.     Apply  the  definition  to 

thein.     How  do  they  differ  from  Nouns  ? 

4.  In  the  saying — weovre  you  nothings— who  are  denoted 

by  *  we?' 

5.  When  is  *  thou  *  used  ?    What  is  *  you  *  applied  to  ? 

6.  To  what  class  of  Pronouns  belong  *  he  '  and  *  she  ?  ' 

7.  How  many  Modes  of  Reference  has  the  pronoun  *  it  ? ' 

What  is  the  First  ?     When  is  this  reference  uncer- 
tain ? 

8.  What'is  the  Second  Reference  ? 

9.  What  i8  the  Third  Reference  ? 

10.  What  is  the  mode  of  Reference  in  such  expressions  as 

*  lord  it/  *  brave  it  out  ? ' 

11.  What   is  the   usual   mode   of  Reference  of  *they?* 

What  other  reference  has  it  sometimes  ? 

12.  In  what  eases  are  the  words  *  this  *  and  *that*  used  as 

Pronouns?     What  other  Part  of  Speech  are  they? 
What  makes  them  Pronouns  ? 

13.  What  are  the  Indefinite  Demonstrative  Pronouns? 

14.  Distinguish  tha  two  uses  of  the  word  *on8.' 

15.  Give  an  expression  containing   '  other  '  as  a  Pronoun. 

Would  it  be  a  Pronoun  in  the  saying — He  has  other 
property  ? 

16.  What  are  the  Reflective  Pronouns  ? 

17.  What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun  more  than  a  Personal  or 

Demonstrative  Pronoun  ? 

18.  Which  of  the  Relatives  apply  to  Persons,  which  to 

Things  ? 

19.  What  are  the  co-ordinating  Relatives  ?    Give  the  use 

of  *  who. ' 

20.  What  are  the  purposes  of  *  which  ?  *     What  uses  are 

common  to  *  which  *  and  '  it  ? ' 


QUESTIONS    ON   THE    PRONOUN.  57 

21.  What   is   the  chief   relative    of   Restriction  ?     Give 

sentences   showing   the  difference  between  Co-or- 
dination and  Restriction. 

22.  In  the  saying — we  pursue  what  pleases  us — give  the 

use  of  '  what.' 

23.  Mention  various   substitutes   for   the   Relatives,  and 

mention  which   are   co-ordinating,  and  which  re- 
strictive.    Give  illustrative  sentences. 

24.  Give  the  Interrogative   Pronouns.      How   do    these 

answer  to  the  Definition  of  the  Pronoun  ? 


TILE    ADJECTIVE. 

DEFINITION. 

1.  Dejimtion.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  joined  to 
a  noun,  to  increase  its  meaning  and  limit  its  ex- 
tent:— as  *  round  towers,*  Hall  men,'  *  clear  water.' 

*  Towers '  is  a  significant  or  general  noun,  comprehending 
a  class  of  things.     The  word  *  round  *  selects  from  the  class 

*  towers*  such  as  are  round;  accordingly  '  round  towers* 
means  all  that  *  tower  *  means,  and  *  round '  hesides.  The 
class  *  round  towers  '  is  at  the  same  time  a  smaller  class  than 
the  class  *  towers.' 

*  Tall  men  '  has  more  meaning  than  *  men  ;  *  it  adds  tallness 
to  the  other  distinctions  of  human  heings.  At  the  same  time 
it  makes  a  class  of  smaller  extent. 

*  Clear  water  *  means  more  than  *  water  * ;  and  restricts  the 
application,  by  leaving  out  all  water  that  is  not  clear. 

Adjectives  express  meanings  that  usually  vary  in  degree ; 
some  tall  men  are  taller  than  others  ;  some  water  is  clearer 
than  other  water ;  all  things  called  *  round  *  are  not 
equally  round. 

This  shows  the  difference  between  an  Adjective  and  a  Noun 
used  as  an  Adjective.     If  we  say  *  clear  water,'  we  can    say 

*  clearer,  clearest ; '  but  if  we  say  *  rose  water,'  or  *  ditch 
water,'  we  cannot  say  *  roser,  rosest ;  *  *  ditcher,  ditcbest.' 

The  greater  number  of  adjectives  are  called  Adjectives  of 
Quality.  A  certain  number  express  not  Quality  but  Quantity, 


PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES.  59 

or  amount.  A  few  words,  having  the  effect  of  Adjectives, 
are  derived  from  Pronouns,  and  are  called  Pronominal* 
these  are  the  fewest  of  all ;  they  may  be  taken  first.  Under 
Adjectives  are  placed  the  words  a  or  an,  and  the,  called  the 
Articles. 

CLASSES  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

2.  I.  Pronominal.  These  are  of  two  kinds. 
Demonstrative  and  Possessive. 

Pronouns  stand  by  themselves  in  place  of  nouns :  pro- 
nominal adjectives  go  along  with  nouns. 

In  the  expression — *  I  don't  like  that ' — '  that '  is  a  pronoun : 
in  *  I  don't  like  that  man,'  *  that*  is  a  pronominal  adjective. 

3.  1.  Pronominal  Demonstratives  :— this,  that, 
the,  you,  yonder. 

This  applies  to  persons  and  to  things,  and  means  some 
object  near  at  hand,  or  nearer  than  some  other  compared 
object : — *  this  man,'  namely,  some  one  close  by  ;  *  this  fellow 
was  one  of  them.' 

That  applies  also  to  persons  and  to  things,  and  means 
something  at  a  distance.  *  That  man  *  is  some  one  not  close 
by. 

*  This '  and  *  that  *  are  correlative  or  contrasting  words  ; 
the  one  excludes  or  opposes  the  other ;  *  I  mean  this  man, 
not  that  one.' 

The,  derived  from  *  that,'  is  commonly  called  the  Definite 
Article.'  It  is  usually  explained  along  with  *a*  or  *  an,' 
called  the  Indefinite  Article. 

Yon  and  yonder  are  in  use  for  the  same  meaning  as  *  that : ' 
*  yon  castle  wall ;  *  '  yonder  city.' 

4.  2.  Pronominal  Possessives :— my,  mine,  our, 
ours,   thy,    thine,   your,  yours,  his,  her,  hers,  its, 


60  THE    ADJECTIVE. 

their,    theirs.     These   are   the   possessives  of  the 
Personal  and  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

The  forms  my,  our,  thy,  your,  their,  are  used  with  nouns 
like  any  other  adjectives;  *  my  horse,'  *  our  table,'  *  yotir 
desk,'  *  their  house  : '  the  corresponding  forms  mine,  ours, 
thine,  yours,  theirs,  are  used  in  the  predicate ;  *  the 
horse  is  mine^  *  the  table  is  oxirs^  *  the  desk  is  yoiirSy*  *the 
house  is  theirs.* 

Exercise  8. 
Fronotninal  Adjectives. 

1.  Come  one,  come  all,  this  rock  shall  fly 
From  its  firm  base  as  soon  as  I. 

2.  That  spearVound  hath  our  master  sped. 

3.  Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 

4.  There  are  only  two  courses  open  to  us,  to  fight  or  to 

retreat ;  this  is  disgrace,  that  is  madness. 

5.  Yon  cottager  who  weaves  at  her  own  door. 

6.  In  yonder  grave  a  Druid  lies. 

7.  Some  sins  "do  bear  their  privilege  on  earth, 

And  so  doth  yours  ;  your  fault  was  not  your  folly, 

8.  Besides,  this  Duncan 
Hath  borne  his  faculties  so  meek. 

5.  II.  Adjectives  of  Quantity. 

1.  Quantity  in  mass  or  bulk:— much,  little, 
great,  small,  some,  any  :  wuch  food,  little 
fire,  great  houses,  some  water. 

6.  2.  Quantity  in  Number.  Under  this  head 
176  have  various  kinds. 


ADJECTIVES    OF   QUANTITY.  61 

(1)  Definite  Numeral  Adjectives  : — as  eight  daj'S  {cardinal 
number) ;  the  eighth  day  {ordinal  number)  ;  siiigle,  double, 
triple  (multipliers). 

A  or  an,  the  Indefinite  Article,  is  the  numeral  adjective 

*one,'  with  a  somewhat  altered  signification. 
Another  is  an  ordinal  adjective,  meaning  the  second  of  two. 
Both  means  two  taken  together,  and  is  opposed  to  the 

distributives  *  either*  (one  of  two),  and  *  neither'  (none  of 

two). 

(2)  Indefinite  Numeral  Adjectives;  as  ^  many  houses,* 
*a«y  towns,'  *  a/^  streets. *  These  express  number,  but  not 
in  the  definite  form  of  numeration. 

Some  denotes  an  uncertain  portion  of  an  entire  collection : 
^ some  trees  are  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter,'  ^  some  men 
have  black  hair.' 

Certain  is  a  small  select  number  :  *  there  are  certain  points 
that  I  object  to.'  Applied  in  the  singular,  it  means  a  par- 
ticular and  known  individual : — *  hard  by  lived  a  certain 
nobleman.* 

Several  is  used  to  mean  a  small  number.  *  He  went  several 
miles,  before  he  saw  his  mistake.* 

Few  is  opposed  to  many : — *  Few,  few  shall  part  where 
mayig  meet.*  '  A  few  '  is  some— not  many  : — *Thou  hast  a  few 
names  even  in  Sardis.'  'Not  a  few'  is  a  more  emphatic 
main/  : — '  and  of  honourable  women  not  a  few."* 

Most  means  the  largest  number: — ^most  people  admit  that.* 

All  is  opposed  to  *  none,'  and  to  *some:' — *not  one  or 
two,  but  all  acknowledged  his  power.* 

Whole,  or  total,  is  opposed  to  *  part,'  and  hence  to  *  some  :*— 
*  the  whole  performance  was  admirable.* 

No  and  None,  the  absence,  negation,  or  privation  of  any- 

6 


62  THE   ADJECTIVE. 

thing : — *  no  sound  broke  the  stillness,'  *  no  mourners  attended 
his  funeral.' 

(3)  Distributive   Numeral    Adjectives;    as  *each  man, 

*  neither    way.'     These  are— each,  either,  neither,  several, 
every,  other. 

Each  means  two  or  more  things  taken  separately  :  either 
means  otw  of  two  things.  It  is  correct  to  say — *  there  are 
houses  on  each  side  of  the  road,'  when  we  mean  both  sides : 
but  we  must  say — *  you  may  build  a  house  on  either  side,' 
when  we  mean  one  and  not  both. 

Every  means  a//,  of  a  number  of  things  taken  separately  : 

*  every  art  '  means  *  all  arts '  when  spoken  of  one  by  one. 

Exercise  9. 

Adjectives  of  Quantity, 

1.  A  small  leak  may  sink  a  great  ship. 

2.  The  planets  traverse  enormous  orbits. 

3.  Every  little  thing  helps. 

4.  I  will    do  your  worship  as   much   service   for   forty 

shillings  as  another  shall  for  three  pounds. 

5.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  which  lasted  seven  days, 

began  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh  month. 

6.  AH  join  the  chase,  but  few  the  triumph  share. 

7.  They  performed  their  several  duties  admirably,  each 

striving  to  do  his  best. 

8.  Either  of  the  two  large  rods,    and  any  one  of  the 

small,  will  serve  my  purpose. 

9.  Each  of  the  five  rooms  on  the  second  floor  is  smaller 

than  any  of  the  three  on  the  first  floor. 

10.  All  thine  adversaries,  every  one  of  them,  shall  go  into 

captivity. 

11.  Several  stars  go  to  the  making  of  one  constellation. 


ADJECTIVES    OF   QUALITY.  63 

12.  Certain  fishes  have  a  swimming  bladder, 

13.  Two  men  went  up  into  the  temple  to  pray :  the  one  a 

Pharisee,  the  other  a  publican. 

14.  You  must  take  both  the  horses  or  neither. 

15.  Love  all,  trust  a  few,  do  wrong  to  none. 

16.  The  abilities  of  man  must  fall  short  on  one  side  or 

other,  like  too  scanty  a  blanket  when  you  are  abed. 

17.  A  dungeon  horrible,  on  all  sides  round 
As  one  great  furnace  flamed. 

18.  He  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world 
Like  a  Colossus  ;  and  we  petty  men 
Walk  under  his  huge  legs. 

19.  Then  none  was  for  a  party, 
Then  all  were  for  the  state. 

20.  Two  of  a  house  few  ages  can  afford, 
One  to  perform,  another  to  record. 

21.  Some  he  will  lead  to  courts,  and  some  to  camps. 

7.  III.  Adjectives  of  Quality:— a  rich  man,  a 
beautiful  garden,  mighty  kings,  good  will,  holij 
places,  old  walls,  high  mountains,  wild  beasts, 
ancient  tunes,  natural  affection,  lowly  minds,  false 
doctrines,  the  African  lion. 

To  know  whether  a  word  is  an  Adjective  of  Quality,  con- 
sider, first,  whether  it  be  an  Adjective.  Consider,  secondy 
whether  it  be  a  Pronominal  Adjective,  or  an  Adjective  of 
Quantity.  If,  being  an  Adjective,  it  is  neither  of  these  two 
kinds,  it  is  an  Adjective  of  Quality. 

Thus,  *  spacious '  is  an  Adjective :  it  complies  with  the 
Definition,  as  may  be  seen  in  using  it  with  a  noun,  *  sjjaciotcs 
rooms,'  '  sjMcious  grounds.'  But  it  is  not  one  of  the  Pro- 
nominal Adjectives,  and  it  is  not  one  of  the  Adjectives  of 


64  THE   ADJECTIVE. 

Quantity ;  accordingly  we  set  it  down  as  an  Adjective  of 
Quality. 

Try  on  the  same  plan — oval,  hard,  cold,  red,  sweet. 

8.  Adjectives  of  Qaality  are  as  extensive  as  our 
knowledf^e. 

The  following  are  some  leading  classes  of  Adjectives  of 
Quality  :— 

Time  : — Enduring,  permanent,  frequent,  transient,  brief, 
hasty,  momentary,  unceasing,  eternal,  preceding,  former, 
following,  late,  present,  future,  contemporary,  approach injgf, 
bygone,  ancient,  modern,  young,  old,  mature,  early, 
punctual,  ready,  late,  tardy,  seasonable,  incessant,  recurrent. 

Space : — Extensive,  roomy,  capacious,  local,  large,  bulky, 
voluminous,  minute,  expanded,  contracted,  distant,  near, 
long,  short,  broad,  narrow,  high,  low,  deep,  upright, 
straight,  slanting,  level,  flat,  plane,  hanging,  parallel,  in- 
clined, inverted,  crossed,  external,  internal,  outer,  inner, 
superficial,  covered,  bare,  intervening,  circumscribed,  fore- 
most, hindermost,  lateral. 

Form : — Regular,  uniform,  shaped,  irregular,  distorted  ; 
angular,  bent,  crooked,  curved,  round,  oval,  winding,  spiral, 
conical,  columnar,  bulging,  concave,  hollow,  open. 

Motion  : — Moving,  still,  stationary,  restless,  wandering, 
cjilm,  quiet,  steady,  sailing ;  fast,  speedy,  swift,  rapid,  quick, 
fleet,  nimble,  brisk,  slow,  tardy,  easy,  lazy,  sluggish ;  im- 
pulsive, recoiling  ;  advancing,  receding,  undeviating,  attrac- 
ting, repelling,  converging,  diverging,  admitting,  excluding, 
rising,  falling,  turning,  vibrating,  tremulous. 

Solidity: — Material,  heavy,  light,  dense,  rare,  compact, 
thin,  hard,  soft,  stiff",  supple,  tough,  brittle,  powdery,  gritty, 
polished,  frozen. 


THE   ARTICLES.  65 

Fluidity : — Liquid,  fluid,  aerial,  airy,  molten,  volatile, 
■watery,  wet,  windy,  moist,  dry,  flowing,  bubbling,  purling, 
frothy. 

Cb^owr  .•—Luminous,  shining,  bright,  lustrous,  dim,  dull, 
dark,  faint,  dingy,  misty,  shady,  transparent,  glassy,  turbid, . 
coloured,  white,  black,  red,  crimson,  pink,  yellow,  golden, 
purple,  violet,  blue. 

Good  and  Evil : — Moral,  right,  good,  upright,  honest,  just, 
fair,  equable,  worthy,  lovable,  proper,  becoming,  dutiful, 
noble,  generous,  liberal ;  wrong,  unjust,  immoral,  bad, 
wicked,  hateful,  disagreeable,  faithless,  false,  base,  selfish, 
sinful,  guilty,  depraved,  intemperate. 

9.  The  class  of  Adjectives  derived  from  proper 
names;  and  called  Proper  Adjectives,  are  princi- 
pally Adjectives  of  Quality ;  as — the  JVeivtonian 
telescope,  a  peculiar  form  of  telescope  invented 
by  Newton. 

THE  ARTICLES 

10.  A  or  An  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article. 

*  A  horse  '  means  '  any  horse  ; '  one  horse,  but  no  one  in  par- 
ticiilar  ;  any  object  of  the  kind  or  class  horse. 

These  are  not  two  articles,  but  different  forms  of  the  same 
article. 

*  A  *  is  used  before  a  consonant,  and  before  *h'  (sounded 
as  7i),  *  y,'  or  *  w  ;  *  *  a  meal,'  *  a  house,'  *  a  year,'  *  a  world.' 
*  An  '  is  used  before  a  vowel,  and  before  silent  *  h ; '  ^  an 
ounce,'  *  an  hour.* 

Several  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  are  pronounced  as 
if  they  began  with  a  consonant : — Ewe,   eunuch,    eulogy, 


GQ  THE    ADJECTIVE. 

European,  useful.  Before  such  words  some  writers  use  '  an/ 
but  most  writers  use  *a,'  which  is  preferable — *  a  ewe-lamb/ 
*  a  eulogy,'  *  a  European  fame,'  *  a  useful  article.' 

11.  The  is  called  the  Definite  Article. 

*  2 he  horse  '  means  some  one  horse  in  particular. 

It  is  the  uncmphatic  form  of  the  de4nonstrative  *  that,'  and 
has  itself  a  weaker  demonstrative  force  than  '  that.' 

By  this  article,  combined  with  significant  nouns,  we  may 
single  out  an  individual. 

*  The  town  '  means  the  particular  town  that  we  live  in  or 
near. 

*  The  window '  means  the  window  of  the  room  that  we 
live  in. 

'  The  Saviour,'  *  the  tempter,'  *  the  church  '—are  individual 
names. 

The  significant  noun  may  be  qualified  by  an  adjective  :— 
the  Catholic  church  ;  the  south  wind ;  the  succeeding  genera- 
tion ;  the  late  king. 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  THE  SIMPLE  ADJECTIVE. 

12.  1.  The  Adjective  Clause  is  a  sentence 
servings  to  limit  a  Noun  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Adjective  : — the  house  that  Jack  built  ;  subjects  that 
are  hard  to  understand ;  metals  that  do  not  tarnUli; 
men  that  have  suffered  reverses. 

*  Subjects  that  are  hard  to  understand ' — is  nearly  the  same 
as  '  unintelligible  subjects.'  For — *  metals  that  do  not  tarnish,' 
we  may  substitute  ^incorrodible  metals:' — *men  that  have 
suffered  reverses ' — *  unfortunate  men.' 

We  cannot  always  obtain  an  Adjective  to  make  the  re- 
striction that  is  needed.      There  is    no  adjective    for  '  the 


SUBSTITUTES    FOR    THE    SIMPLE    ADJECTIVE,  67 

house  that  Jack  built.*  *  Kings  that  have  succeeded  while 
young,'  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  simple  adjective  united  to 
'kings.* 

13.  2.  Tho  Adjective  Clause  may  be  reduced  to  a 
Participial  Phrase; — the  bouse  built  hy  Jack; 
Kings  succeedmg  while  yoking  ,-  men  (tbat  are)  'pre- 
disposed to  crime ;  furnaces  consuming  (tbat  consume) 
ilieir  oivn  smoke. 

These  participial  phrases  either  are  or  resemble  shortened 
clauses. 

14.  3.  Tbe  place  of  the  Adjective  is  often  taken 
by  a  Noun: — a  diamond  necklace  ;  the  oj)ium  trside  ; 
the  London  mail ;  Guernsey  granite. 

These  are  still  farther  abbreviations.  *  A  diamond 
necklace  *  is  a  necklace  that  is  made  of  diamonds  (adjective 
clause)  ;  this  may  be  shortened  to  the  participial  phrase — a 
necklace  made  of  diamonds.  By  leaving  out  the  verb 
entirely,  it  becomes  'diamond  necklace,'  which  is  the  final 
substitute  for  a  clause. 

*  The  opium  trade '  is  contracted  from  *  the  trade  that  is 
carried  on  in  opium.* 

*  London  mail ' — is  the  mail  that  proceeds  to  and  from  Lon- 
don, or  the  mail  proceeding  to  and  from  London. 

*  Guernsey  granite' — granite  that  is  brought  from 
Guernsey. 

*  Cod-liver  oil '  is  a  double  contraction.  *  Cod  liver  *  is 
liver  belonging  to  the  cod  ;  '  cod-liver  oil '  is  oil  that  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  liver  that  belongs  to,  or  is  found  in,  the  cod. 

15.  4.  A  frequent  substitute  for  the  Adjective  is 
a  phrase :— a  man  ?'n  armour;  castles  m  the  air ; 
the  river  of  the  tree  of  life* 


68  THE    ADJECTIVE. 

These  also  are  shortened  forms  of  clauses.  *  A  man  in 
armour,'  is  a  man  that  is  clad  in  armour.  *  Castles  in  the 
air' — castles  huilt,  or  that  are  built,  or  that  are  imagined  in 
the  air.  *  The  river  of  the  tree  of  life  ' — *  the  river  that 
runs  by  or  near  the  tree  that  imparts  life.' 

Such  phrases  are  mostly  Adverbial  phrases;  the  verbs  that 
they  belong  to  being  left  out. 

16-  5.  In  sigmfy'mg possession,  a  possessive  case 
may  serve  the  purpose  of  an  Adjective  : — JhtroltVs 
grave ;  the  moons  orbit ;  virtue's  reward  ;  IleaveiCs 
decree. 

These  possessives,  like  prepositional  phrases,  are  shortened 
clauses  :  —The  grave  where  Harold  is  buried ;  the  orbit  that 
the  moon  revolves  in ;  the  reward  that  follows  on  the 
practice  of  virtue;  the  decree  that  has  been  issued  from 
Heaven. 

17-  6.  Occasionally,  Adjectives  have  their  place 
supplied  by  Adverbs :  —  daily  bread  ;  the  above 
remarks  ;  a  cross  section. 

The  same  process  of  abbreviation  is  traceable  here.  *  Daily 
bread,'  is  bread  that  is  supplied  daily,  or  day  by  day ; 
*  the  above  remarks  ' — the  remarks  that  have  been  made 
above. 

The  adverb  is  to  be  understood  as  qualifying  an  omitted 
verb. 

These  substitutes  for  the  Adjective  are  also  explained  in 
The  Analysis  of  Sentences. 

ADJECTIVES  IN  THE  PREDICATE. 
18.  The  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  is  often  made 
np  of  an  Incomplete  Verb  and  an  Adjective  : — the 
fixed  stars  are  remote  ;  tbe  sun  rose  red. 


PREDICATE   ADJECTIVES.  69 

The  verb    *  be  *   is  the   chief   of    the    incomplete   verbs. 

Many  sentences  have  as   predicate  some  part  of  this  verb 

along   with   an   adjective :    I   am   strong ;  the   new  gate  is 

secure;  the   day  has    been  fine ;  the   bravest  are  not  always 

fortunate  ;  the  golden  eagle  is  scarce. 

19.  Adjectives  in  the  Predicate  are  not  restric- 
tiv^e,  but  co-ordinating.  Tliey'  do  not  narrow  a 
class,  but  add  some  new  meaning  to  it. 

In  the  designation — *  fixed  stars,'  the  adjective  *  fixed  '  nar- 
rows the  class  '  stars,'  and  increases  its  signification,  so  that 
the  subject  denotes  not  all  *  stars,'  but  such  stars  as  are 
fixed :  this  is  the  usual  purpose  of  an  adjective  joined  to  a 
noun.  In  the  saying — *  the  fixed  stars  are  remote* — the 
adjective  'remote'  does  not  farther  narrow  the  class  *  fixed 
stars,'  but  predicates,  or  says,  of  them  that  they  are  *  remote  ; ' 
that  they  belong  to  the  class — *  remote  or  distant  things.* 

*  Golden  eagles  are  now  rare.'  The  adjective  'golden* 
restricts  the  class  *  eagles '  and  increases  its  meaning  ;  the 
predicate  adjective,  *  rare,'  does  not  restrict  the  class,  but 
connects  it,  or  co-ordinates  it,  with  another  class,  the  class 
*  rare  animals.'  It  is  the  same  as — *  golden  eagles  are  rare 
animals,'  or  are  included  in  the  wider  class  *rare  animals.' 

*  The  new  gate  is  secure,'  is  a  shorter  way  of  saying— 
'the  new  gate  is  a  secure  gate.'  The  predicate  adjective 
does  not  restrict  the  noun  in  the  subject — new  gate ;  it  re- 
stricts a  noun  in  the  predicate,  which  noun  is  not  expressed. 

'The  bravest  are  not  always  fortunate.'  There  is  here  a 
double  omission  of  the  noun  'men.'  'The  bravest  men  are 
not  always  fortunate  men.^  In  this  form  the  use  of  the  adjec- 
tives—bravest, fortunate— is  regular.  _  By  the  one,  'men'  is 
restricted  to  the  bravest  men ;  by  the  other,  to  fortunate  men. 
The  sentence  denies  that  the  two  are  always  the  same. 


70  THE    ADJECTIVE. 

*  Brutus  is  honourable,'  is  the  same  as  *  Brutus  is  an  hon- 
ourable man.*  *  Honourable'  does  not  restrict  Brutus;  it 
restricts  the  class  *  man,'  and  predicates  of  Brutus  that  he  is 
to  be  found  in  the  restricted  class — *  honourable  men.' 

With  other  Incomplete  Verbs  : — Britain  has  become  great ; 
studious  men  grow  wise  ;  the  young  horses  were  allowed  to 
run  wild ;  the  moon  shines  bright. 

*  Britain  has  become  great,'  is  the  same  as — Britain  has 
become  a  great  nation.  So — studious  men  grow  wise  men. 
The  young  horses  were  allowed  to  run  wild  horses — to  become 
wild  horses.   The  moon  shines  bright — shines  a  bright  object, 

20.  Many  adjectives  prefixed  to  Nouns  are  not 
restrictive,  but  co-ordinating,  or  predicate  Adjec- 
tives. 

This  can  be  known  only  from  the  sense. 
*  "When  an  adjective  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  or  singular 
name,  it  cannot  be  restrictive.  *  Brave  soldiers '  expresses  a 
select  class  of  soldiers,  possessing,  in  addition  to  the  qualities 
of  all  other  soldiers,  the  quality  of  being  brave.  But  *  brave 
Curtius'  cannot  restrict  Curti us ;  an  individual  cannot  be 
restricted.  The  meaning  is—Curtius,  who  was  brave;  it  is  a 
short  way  of  mentioning  Curtius,  and  of  saj^ng  also  that 
Curtius  was  a  brave  man. 

*  Glorious  Apollo '  is  Apollo,  tvho  is  gloriom.  It  names 
Apollo,  and  implies  that  he  is  glorious. 

*Thou  Great  First  Cause,  least  understood.'  *  First'  has 
a  restrictive  meaning ;  it  selects  from  the  class  *  causes '  the 
one  that  is  first,  or  the  foundation  of  all  the  rest.  The  ad- 
jective '  great '  does  not  farther  restrict  *  First  Cause  ;  *  but 
adds  to  it  the  designation  Great ;  '  Thou  First  Cause,  thou 
art  great.*  The  phrase  *  least  understood  ^s  an  additional 
circumstance  of  co-ordination.     The  full  expression  of  the 


EXERCISE    OK   THE    ADJECTIVE.  71 

passage  is — Thou  art  the  First  Cause ;  thou  art  Great ;  thou 
art  least  understood. 

*  The  sea,  the  open  sea ' — the  sea,  ivhich  is  open,  which  is 
an  open  thing.  *  The  wide  world ' — the  world,  which  is 
wide,  which  is  a  wide  object  or  thing.  *  The  glorious  uni- 
verse ' — the  universe,  which  is  glorious.  These  adjectives 
are  all  co-ordinating  :  they  have  the  same  effect  as  a  clause 
introduced  by  the  co-ordinating  relative — which. 

*  The  human  face  divine.'  The  class  noun  *  face  *  is  re- 
stricted by  the  adjective  human — *  human  faces  '  are  selected 
from  the  wider  class  *  faces. '  The  adjective  *  divine  *  does 
not  make  a  farther  selection  from  human  faces,  or  constitute 
a  narrower  class  *  divine  human  faces,'  leaving  out  certain 
human  faces  that  are  not  divine  ;  it  adds  to  the  class 
*  human  faces,'  in  all  its  extent,  the  meaning  *  divine  * — the 
human  face,  which  is  divine,  which  is  a  divine  faee. 

Pronominal  Adjectivesf  Numeral  Adjectives,  and  the  Articles, 
comply  with  the  defiuition  of  the  Adjective  ;  they  limit  a 
class  word  to  a  select  portion,  often  to  an  individual.  From 
their  nature,  they  do  not  admit  of  degrees  j  they  are  not  com- 
pared, 

Exercise  10. 

Adjectives  genet' ally. 

1.  It  is  better  that  ten  guilty  persons  should  escape  than 

that  one  innocent  should  suffer. 

2.  King  Arthur  is  said  to  have  lived  a  blameless  life  in 

the  good  old  times. 

3.  Caesar  is  styled  the  foremost  man  of  all  this  world. 

4.  Holy  and  heavenly  thoughts  shall  counsel  her. 

5.  The  Sloane  Collection  was  the  first  foundation  of  the 

'  British  Museum. 

6.  O  the  nrast  beef  of  Old  England, 
And  0  for  Old  England's  roast  beef. 


72  EXEECISE    ON   THE   ADJECTIVE. 

7    Dryden  the  poet  was  one  of  the  choice  and  master 
spirits  of  his  age. 

8.    But  anxious  cares  the  pensive  nymph  oppressed, 
And  secret  passions  laboured  in  her  breast. 

9."  People  living  in  the  country  get  town  made  articles 
from  the  retail  traders  of  their  neighbourhood. 

10.  Two  boys  whose  birth  beyond  all  question  sprin<^8 

From  great  and  glorious,  though  forgotten  kings. 

11.  Nimrod  was  a  mighty  hunter. 

12.  Country  cousins  are  sometimes  unwelcome  visitors  to 

their  town  friends. 

1 3.  These  little  things  are  great  to  little  men. 

14.  Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires. 

15.  Hath  sorrow  struck 

So  many  blows  upon  this  face  of  mine, 
And  made  no  deeper  wounds  ? 

16.  To  every  man  upon  this  earth 
Death  cometh,  soon  or  late.    ^ 

17.  He  that  tells  a  lie,  is  not  sensible  how  great  a  task  he 
"undertakes ;  for  to  maintain  that  one,  he  must  invent  twenty 
more. 

18.  The  battled  towers,  the  donjon  keep, 
The  loophole  grates,  where  captives  weep, 
The  flanking  walls  that  round  it  sweep 

In  yellow  lustre  shone. 

19.  Soon  will  the  high  midsummer  pomps  come  on, 

20.  Mine  be  the  heart  that  can  itself  defend. 

21.  The  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind. 

22.  With  every  exertion  the  best  of  men  can  do  but  a 

moderate  amount  of  good. 

23.  But  oh  !  how  few  of  all  that  try 

This  might}'  march,  do  aught  but  die  ? 

24.  There  are  ninety  good  years  of  fair  and  foul  weather 

Between  them,  and  both  go  a  stealing  together. 


EXERCISE    ON   THE   ADJECTIVE.  73 

25.  By  this  the  northern  waggoner  had  set 

His  sevenfold  team  behind  the  steadfast  star. 

26.  Deep  in  the  shady  sadness  of  a  vale, 

Far  sunken  from  the  healthy  breath  of  morn, 
Far  from  the  fiery  noon   and  eve's  one  star, 
Sat  gray-haired  Saturn,  quiet  as  a  stone, 

27.  And  thy  hair, 

Thou  other  gold-bound  brow,  is  like  the  first. 

28.  Jerusalem  has  derived  additional  reputation  from  the 

number  and  importance  of  her  memorable  sieges. 

29.  I  am  sorry  for  thee,  thou  art  come  to  answer 
A  stony  adversary,  an  inhuman  wretch 
Incapable  of  pity,  void  and  empty 

From  any  dram  of  mercy. 

30.  In  the  task  of  securing  their  armies  against  attacks  in 

flank  and  rear,  the  Allies  were  much  favoured  by 
the  conformation  of  the  ground ;  for  the  besieging 
forces  were  all  upon  the  Chersonese,  which  was  so 
bounded  by  the  sea  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Sapoune  Heights  on  the  other,  as  to  offer  good 
means  of  defence. 

31.  From  toil  he  wins  his  spirits  light, 
From  busy  day  the  peaceful  night ; 
Rich  from  the  very  want  of  wealth, 

In  heaven's  best  treasures,  peace  and  health. 

32.  When  one  of  the  unphilosophical  artists  of  the  circus 

gallops  his  round,  standing  or  dancing  upon  his 
horse's  back,  and  tosses  up  an  orange,  which  he  is 
afterwards  to  receive  on  the  sharpened  point  of  a 
sword,  he  presents  to  us  an  exemplification  of  some 
physical  truths,  connected  with  the  most  refined 
conclusions  of  science. 

Questions. 

1.  Define  the  Adjective;  apply  the  definition  to  the  Ad- 

jectives— bright,  square,  good, — supplying  a  noun 
to  each. 

2.  How  can  the  Adjective  be  distinguished  from  the  Noun  ? 

7 


74  THE    ADJECTIVE. 

3.  Give  the  classes  of  Adjectives.    Which  class  is  most 

numerous  ? 

4.  What  are  the  Pronominal  Adjectives  ?     Show  how  they 

come  under  the  definition  of  the  Adjective. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  of  meaning  between  *  this  '  and 

*  that  ? '     Why  are  they  called  correlative  words  ? 

6.  What  are  the  words— your,  his,  its,  their — called?  and 

why? 

7.  What  are  the  words— much,  great,  some,  any  ?     Show 

how  they  comply  with  the  definition  of  the  Adjec- 
tive. Show  also  that  they  cannot  be  Nouns.  Can 
any  of  them  be  Pronouns  ? 

8.  What  are  the  words — five,  third,  triple  ?    How  do  they 

answer  to  the  definition  of  the  Adjective  ? 

9.  What  are — all,  any,  most,  several,  few  ? 

10.  What  are— either,  each,  every  ? 

11.  What  is  the  difi'erenco  of  meaning  between  'either  * 

and  *  each  ?  * 

12.  What  is  the  diflference  between  *  all'  and  *  every  ?  ' 

13.  Give  some  Adjectives  of  Quality  from  the  classes — 

Time,  Space,  Form,  Motion,  Colour.  Apply  to 
some  of  them  the  definition  of  the  Adjective. 

14.  How  do  we  know  an  Adjective  of  Quality  ?    Take  as 

examples — old,  rapid,  smooth,  pleasant. 

15.  Give   a   reason  for   regarding  Proper   Adjectives   as 

Adjectives  of  Quality. 

16.  What  is  the  use  of  *  a,*  called  the  Indefinite  Article  ? 

Take  the  examples — a  man,  a  table,  a  church. 

17.  What  is  the  use  of  '  the,'  called  the  Definite  Article  ? 

Give  the  meaning  of — the  man,  the  table,  the  church. 

18.  What  are  the  substitutes  for  the  Adjective? 

19.  Restrict  the  noun  '  man  *  by  the  signification  *  rich,' 

expressed  as  an  Adjective  Clause. 

20.  What  is  a  participial  phrase  ?     How  may  it  be  derived 

from  an  Adjective  Clause  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   ADJECTIVE.  75 

21.  In  the  designation — London  Weekly  Express — what 

are  the  words  '  London  *  and  *  Weekly  ? '  State  the 
meaning  by  clauses  in  full. 

22.  When  a  prepositional  phrase  takes  the  place  of  an 

Adjective,  what  Part  of  Speech  does  it  answer  to  ? 
and  what  does  it  qualify  ? 

23.  Fill  up  the  omitted  words  in— Jacob's  ladder,  Time's 

revenge. 

24.  Give  an  example  of  an  Adverb  occupying  the  place  of 

an  Adjective.  Give  some  omitted  verb,  which  the 
Adverb  qualifies. 

25.  Give  a  sentence  containing  an  Adjective  in  the  Predi- 

cate. What  is  the  character  of  the  Verb  in  such  a 
Sentence  ? 

26.  Show  that  the  Adjective  in  the  Predicate  is  not  re- 

strictive, but  co-ordinating.  Examples— marine 
animals  are  cold  ;  old  wine  is  costly.  What  are 
the  names  that  the  predicate  adjective  restricts  ? 

27.  When   an   Adjective   goes   along  with   a   Proper  or 

Singular  name,  show  that  it  cannot  be  restrictive. 


THE    VEEB. 


DEFINITION. 


1.  The  Verb  is  the  chief  word  used  in  predica- 
tion. 

There  can  be  no  Sentence  without  a  Verb : — 
William  speaks  ;  rivers  deposit  mud  ;  gold  is  heavy. 

When  we  predicate,  or  affirm,  of  William  that  ho  speaks, 
we  use  a  verb.  The  predication  respecting  rivers — *  deposit 
mud' — contains  the  verb  *  deposit,*  and  the  object  'mud.' 
The  predicate  of  gold — *  is  heavy  ' — contains  the  verb  *  is  * 
and  the  adjective  *  heavy.  * 

2.  The  Verb  takes  on  different  forms  to  express 
the  circumstances  of  Predication  ;  the  chief  cir- 
cumstance being  Time, 

'  William  speaks  *  means  that  William  is  performing  the 
act  of  speaking  noWy  or  at  the  present  time.  *  Pitt  spoke  * — 
would  mean  that  the  act  took  place  in  past  time. 

No  part  of  Speech,  except  the  Verb,  undergoes  changes  for 
time.  In  other  parts  of  speech  there  are  words  that  express 
time — as  the  adverbs  *  now,'  '  formerly  ; '  .but  that  is  their 
only  purpose. 

The  other  circumstances  expressed  by  the  Verb,  besides 
Time,  are  given  under  Inflection. 


INTRANSITIVE    VERBS.  ^^ 

CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 

3-  I-  Transitive  Verbs  ;  where  the  predicate  is 
completed  by  an  Object : — shepherds  watched  their 
flocks. 

*  Watch  '  is  a  transitive  verb  ;  its  meaning  is  completed  by- 
naming  what  the  shepherds  watched — *  their  flocks.' 

The  following  are  Transitive  Verbs  : — give,  make,  create, 
touch,  train,  break,  kill,  vanquish,  lead,  follow,  rule,  raise, 
add,  dig,  persuade,  save,  cherish. 

Sentences  containing  a  Transitive  verb  are  those  that  give 
the  fullest  account  of  an  action.  When  anything  is  done, 
we  usually  wish  to  know,  first,  who  does  it  (Subject),  second, 
what  is  the  nature  of  the  action  (Verb),  third,  what  person 
or  thing  the  action  is  performed  upon  (Object).  'Hannibal 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  defeated  the  Romans.'  This  contains 
two  actions,  each  completely  stated  in  a  sentence  with  Sub- 
ject, Verb,  and  Object. 

Transitive  Verbs  can  be  turned  into  the  form  called  the 
PASSIVE  VOICE,  the  object  then  becoming  the  subject : — the 
flocks  were  watched  by  the  shepherds  j  the  Romans  were  de* 
feaied  by  Hannibal. 

4-  n.  Intransitive  Yerbs ;  where  the  predicate 
is  complete  without  an  Object : — the  sea  roars ; 
the  stars  twinkle 

*  The  sea  roars ' — contains  as  subject  *  the  sea,'  and  as  pre- 
dicate the  verb  *  roars,'  which  possesses  a  meaning  complete 
in  itself. 

The  sun  shines ;  the  clouds  drift ;  time  passes ;  nations 
rise  and  fall;  the  wound  healed;  we  sat,  the  others  stood; 
some  rode,  some  walked;  a  few  spoke,  none  read,  many 
listened. 


78  THE    VERB. 

Transitive  Verbs  may  become  intransitive  by  expressing 
tbe  action  generolly,  or  witbout  reference  to  any  particubir 
Objt^ct.  '  He  digs  a  field,'  is  Transitive;  *  he  digs '  is  In- 
transitive, and  means  that  his  general  occupation  is  digging. 
*  Virgil  wrote  the  JEneid  ;  '  *  he  writes,'  as  a  profession.  '  I 
Bee  a  ship; '  *  the  puppy  sees '  or  has  attained  its  sight. 

Intransitive  Verbs  may  be  qualified  both  by  an  Adverb, 
and  by  an  Adverbial  phrase : — run  quickly  ;  follow  in  haste  ; 
we  laughed  at  Joseph.  Very  often  the  preposition  can  be 
taken  with  the  verb,  making  it  a  compound  transitive  verb : 
—laugh  at,  contend  for,  run  against.  These  compound 
verbs  can  be  used  in  the  passive  voice,  which  is  the  surest 
mark  of  a  transitive  verb: — Joseph  was  laughed  at;  the 
ofiBce  was  contended  for ;  the  carriage  was  run  against ;  the 
proposal  was  not  to  be  sneered  at ;  everything  was  seen  to. 

The  process  of  forming  compound  verbs  by  prepositions  is 
not  confined  to  Intransitive  verbs.  We  use  it  in  ail  verbs; 
build  up,  take  down,  drive  along,  pass  by,  strike  for,  Ac.  Jt  is 
one  of  the  regular  processes  of  the  language,  for  increasing  the 
number  of  useful  words. 

Some  Transitive  verbs  appear  to  have  a  second  Object: — 
make  me  a  coat ;  pay  the  tailor  his  bill;  he  taught  us  music. 
The  proper  objects  in  these  sentences  are — make  a  coat^  pay 
his  bill,  taught  music.  The  others,  sometimes  called  Indirect 
Objects,  are  considered  as  adverbial  adjuncts  in  the  several 
sentences: — make  a  codit for  me;  pay  his  bill  to  the  tailor; 
he  taught  music  to  us. 

5.  TIL  Verbs  of  Incomplete  Predication: — 
be,  seen,  become,  appear,  call,  grow,  live,  &c. 

These  verbs  do  not  take  an  Object  after  them,  as 
Transitive  verbs  do,  and  they  do  not  of  themselves  give  a 
meaning,  like  Intransitive  Verbs.     They  are  completed  by 


VERBS    OF   INCOMPLETE    PREDICATION.  79 

a  noun  or  an  adjective,  in  co-ordination^  or  apposition,  with 
the  subject. 

In — 'he  was  general,'  the  verb  'was'  is  completed  by 
the  noun  *  general ;  *  which  noun  predicates  a  circumstance 
respecting  the  subject. 

*  She  will  be  handsome.'  The  compound  verb  *  will  be  * 
is  completed  by  the  co-ordinating  adjective  'handsome.' 

He  seemed  a  god  ;  the  rumour  seems  true. 

Wolsey  became  minister  ;  he  became  great. 

The  object  appeared  a  ship  ;  John  appeared  mistaken. 

Mercury  is  called  a  metal ;  all  nations  shall  call  him 
blessed. 

The  child  will  grow  a  man  ;  he  grows  big. 

He  lived  an  example  to  his  flock  ;  he  lived  noble. 

Some  are  born  orators ;  some  are  born  great. 

Exercise  11. 
The  Verb, 

1.  The  expedition  failed. 

2.  The  glass  broke. 

3.  The  mind  developes. 

4.  Do  I  see  this  and  live  ? 

5.  He  left  his  home  poor  and  returned  rich. 

6.  New  brooms  sweep  clean. 

7.  Winds  o'er  us  whispered,  flocks  by  us  did  bleat. 

8.  He  said  he  would  conquer  or  die. 

9.  Our  sight  is  the  greatest  of  our  senses.     We  see 

objects  at  vast  distances.      We  hear   only  when 
sounds  are  loud  and  close. 

10.  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die. 


80  THE    VERB. 

11.  The  statesman  that  endeavours  to  substitute  education 

for  coercion  deserves  well  of  his  country. 

12.  Happy  those  times 

When  lords  were  styled  fathers  of  families. 

13.  The  basaltic  pillars  of  the  Cave  of  Staffa  are  as  hicjh 

as  the  roof  of  a  cathedral.  The  sea  sweeps  roaring 
into  the  cave,  and  beats  apfainst  the  pillars.  The 
floor  seems  paved  with  ruddy  marble.  Boats  can 
come  in  when  the  sea  is  placid. 

14.  Rich  gifts  wax  poor  when  givers  prove  unkind. 

15.  Surely  never  lighted  on  this  orb,  which  she  hardly 

seemed  to  touch,  a  more  delightful  vision.  1  saw 
her  just  above  the  horizon,  decorating  and  cheering 
the  elevated  sphere  she  just  began  to  move  in. 

16.  Is  it  for  thee  the  lark  ascends  and  sings  p 
Joy  tunes  her  voice,  joy  elevates  her  wings. 
Is  it  for  thee  the  linnet  pours  his  throat  ? 
Loves  of  his  own  and  raptures  swell  the  note. 

Questions. 

1.  What  is  the  verb  ?     Why   are  the   following  words 

called  verbs — shines,  break,  hear  ? 

2.  What  circumstance  is  stated  by  a  verb,  besides  mere 

predication  ? 

3.  Are  the  following  words  ever  verbs — water,  thunder, 

house,  chair  ?     What  are  the  tests  ? 

4.  What  is  a  Transitive  Verb? 

5.  Supply  subjects  and  objects  to  the  following  transitive 

verbs : — create,  lift,  drive,  touch,  encourage. 

6.  Why  is  it  said  that  sentences  with  Transitive  Verbs 

give  the  fullest  meaning  ? 

7.  Exemplify  the    passive    construction    of   Transitive 

Verbs.^ 

8.  What  is  an  Intransitive  verb  ?     Give  sentences  with 

Intransitive  verbs. 


QUESTIONS    ON   THE    VERB.  81 

9.  Point  out  in  what  way  Transitive  verbs  become  In- 
transitive. 

10.  When  a  Transitive  verb  has  two  objects,  what  is  the 

second  regarded  as  ? 

11.  To  what  class  belongs  the  verb  *  be.'     Mention  others 

of  the  same  class.     What  words  have  to  be  added 
to  these  Verbs  to  form  Predicates  ? 


THE   ADVEER 


DEFINITION. 


1.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  that 
modifies  the  meaning  of  the  Verb  : — He  spoke 
slowly  ;  they  judged  wisely  ;  Hercules  cleansed  the 
stables  ihorouyhly  ;  we  were  well  advised. 

Most  actions  can  be  performed  in  various  ways.  The 
action  *  speaking' may  be  slow,  rapid,  distinct,  confused; 
and  for  expressing  these  modes,  we  join  to  the  verb  the 
words — slowly,  rapidly,  distinctly,  confusedly. 

CLASSES  OF  ADVERBS. 

2.  T.  Adverbs  of  Place :  as — here,  hence,  near, 
together. 

We  will  remain  here  ;  they  entered  the  city  together. 

(1.)  Rest  in  a  place:  —  here  (in  this  place), 
there  (in  that  place),  where  (in  what  place),  at, 
by,  near,  yonder,  above,  below. 

There  is  used  by  a  peculiar  idiom  to  introduce  a  verb 
before  its  subject : — there  was  a  great  tumult  in  the  city  ; 
there  appeared  unto  them  Moses  and  Elias ;  there  existed  a 
custom. 

Near,  by,  are  the  adverbs  of  nearness  or  proximity  :—  there 
was  no  one  near  ;  stand  hy  ;  a  lady  passed  by. 

Separation  in  place  is  expressed  by  apart,  separately, 
asunder : — six  miles  apart ;  wide  as  the  poles  asunder. 


ADVEKBS    OF    PLACE.  83 

Conjunction  is  expressed  by  together :—  while  they  stood 
talking  together. 

Place,  in  a  variety  of  relative  positions,  is  indicated  by 
—  above,  aloft,  below,  under,  down,  beyond,  yonder,  away, 
through,  in,  out,  without,  inwards,  inside,  around,  fro, 
forth. 

Under  place  we  may  class  the  adverbs  of  numerical  order  :— 
firstly,  or  first,  secondly,  lastly,  &c. 

(2.)  Motion  to  a  place: — hither  Cto  this  place), 
thither  (to  that  place),  whither  (to  what  place). 

Bring  your  son  hither;  he  proceeded  ^/a'Mer  in  January; 
whither  bound  ? 

(3.)  Motion  from  a  place : — hence  (from  this 
place),  thence  (from  that  place),  whence  (from  what 
place). 

Depart  hence  ;  thence  he  proceeded  to  York  ;  whence  come 
you? 

The  pronominal  adverbs  form  three  regular  groups  cor- 
responding to  these  divisions  : — 

Place  where  Motion  to  Motion  from 
Here                        Hither  Heace 

There  Thither  Thence 

Where  Whither  Wheuce 

Where,  used  as  an  Interrogative,  is  a  simple  adverb,  the 
equivalent  of  the  interrogative  adverbial  phrase — '  in  what 
place  ?  '  But  in  such  expressions  as — '  Know  ye  the  land  ivJiere 
the  citron-trees  blow,*  *  where '  serves  more  the  function  of  a 
pronoun  ;  it  is  equivalent  to  *  in  which ' — a  pronominal  adverbial 
phrase. 

3-  II-  Adverbs  of  Time :  ever,  seldom,  now, 
monthly,  to-morrow,  &c.  Time  may  be  present, 
past,  or  future. 

(1.)  Time  present.    Now  is  the  main  or  typical 


Si  THE   ADVERB. 

adverb  of  present  time ;  others    are — to-day,  in- 
stantly, presently,  still,  forthwith,  henceforth. 

(2.)  Time  past :— before,  heretofore,  hitherto, 
already,  lately,  once,  yesterday. 

(8.)  Time  future :— hereafter,  afterwards,  soon, 
henceforth,  presently,  immediately,  to-morrow,  no 
more. 

(4.)  Adverbs  also  express  Duration  of  time  and 
Repetition :  —  ever,  never,  always,  aye,  often, 
seldom,  rarely,  occasionally,  frequently,  continually, 
continuously,  incessantly,  perpetually,  ao^ain,  once, 
twice,  daily,  monthly,  annually,  periodically. 

Then  and  wheii  ma}-  be  described  as  Relative  adverbs  of 
time.  They  express  time  not  absolutely  but  with  reference 
to  some  time  otherwise  given.  They  are  equivalent  to  the 
pronominal  phrases — '  at  that  time,*  *  at  what  time  ?  * 

4.  III.  Adverbs  of  Degree,  or  Measure  : — much, 
little,  very,  far,  exceedingly. 

The  adverbs  so,  as,  and  too,  are  used  to  express  degree 
or  measure  bt/  comparison  with  something  else.  These  ad- 
verbs are  peculiarly  important. 

The  prize-ox  was  so  fat  that  he  could  hardly  walk. 

The  ship  was  as  big  as  a  first-rate  man-of-war. 

Too  good  to  be  true. 

5.  Adverbs  of  Degree  may  be  used  to  qualify 
Adjectives  and  other  Adverbs : — very  rich  ;  exceed- 
ingly moderate  ;  tJiorotcghly  well. 

*  Rich  *  and  *  moderate '  are  adjectives  ;  *  well '  is  an  ad- 
verb. 

Both  Adjectives  and  Adverbs  of  Quality  may  be  varied 
for  Degree.     This  variation  is  made  in  one  way  by  their 


ADVERBS    OF   MANNER.  85 

comparison;  in  another  way  by  adverbs  of  degree  or 
measure. 

Adverbs  qualify ing  Adjectives  : — Slightly  red  ;  scarcely  hot; 
tremendously  bad. 

Adverbs  qualifying  Adverbs  : — very  patiently ;  far  more 
resolutely  ;  so  kindly ;  much  less  warily. 

6.  IV.  Adverbs   of  Belief    and  Disbelief,  or 

Certainty  and  Uncertainty  :  as — truly,  surely,  cer- 
tainly, nay,  not,  not  so. 

7.  V.  Adverbs  of  Cause  and  Effect  :  as — 
therefore,  wherefore,  why. 

8.  YI.  Adverbs  of  Manner  or  Quality:  as — 
well,  ill,  gently,  boldly,  disagreeably,  rapidly. 

As  with  adjectives,  this  is  the  class  that  includes  the 
great  body  of  adverbs. 

9.  Adverbial  Phrases.  Phrases,  made  up  of 
a  preposition  and  a  noun,  are  used  as  Adverbs  : — 
the  enemy  set  the  town  on, fire;  speak  in  point,  to 
the  j)oint. 

The  phrases  may  be  compound.  The  noun  may  be  quali- 
fied by  an  Adjective : — they  came  in  great  haste  ;  we  worked 
to  no  purpose  ;  the  trial  ended  on  the  third  day. 

There  may  bo  a  succession  of  prepositional  phrases  : — in 
point  of  fact ;  according  to  this  rate  of  speed  ;  by  means  of 
a  summary  proceeding  at  law  ;  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

Examples  of  Adverbial  Phrases, 

To  express  Place  : — in  the  house  ;   behind  the  door ;  to- 
wards the  river ;  from  the  South. 
8 


Bb  THE    ADVERB. 

To  express  Time  : — in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye ;  at  the 
close  of  the  day  ;  after  twenty  years. 

To  express  Decree : — in  a  great  measure ;  by  little  and 
little  ;  to  a  small  extent ;  in  a  high  degree. 

To  express  Belief  an^  Disbelief : — by  all  manner  of  means; 
without  a  doubt ;  on  no  account ;  not  a  jot. 

To  express  Cause  and  Effect : — by  means  of  his  wealth, 
throuL^h  the  medium  of  a  lawyer,  by  dint  of  perseverance, 
to  their  own  disadvantage,  with  the  happiest  effect. 

To  express  Manner  or  Quality  : — in  the  top  of  his  glory  ; 
in  sickness  or  in  sorrow  ;  with  fondness ;  with  fire  and 
fury,  &c.  «&c.  The  Adverbial  Phrases  of  manner  and  qua- 
lity are  innumerable. 

The  following  are  select  classes  of  Adverbs  of  Quality 
(words  and  phrases.) 

Life  and  Death  : — In  life,  above  ground,  at  death's  door, 
at  the  point  of  death. 

Fleasure Midi  Fain: — Acutely,  sharply,  pungently,  sensibly, 
feelingly,  pleasurably,  joyfully,  delightfally,  daintily,  sweet- 
ly, tenderly,  painfully,  miserably,  disastrously,  agonizingly, 
frigidly,  horribly,  bitterly,  sourly.  In  rapture,  in  love,  in 
joy,  in  misery,  in  pain,  in  a  glow,  in  a  fever,  in  a  horrible 
plight,  in  danger,  in  distress,  in  an  agony  of  grief,  in  a 
transport  of  joy,  in  a  frenzy  of  despair,  with  indiflference, 
with  an  air  of  melancholy,  in  a  merry  fit. 

Sound  : — Sonorously,  loudly,  vociferously,  quietly,  silently, 
stilly,  noiselessly,  inaudibly,  obstreperously,  boisterousl}', 
clamorously,  harmoniously,  tunefully,  melodiously,  discor- 
dantly, jarringly,  gratingly.  At  the  top  of  one's  voice,  with 
a  loud  shout,  in  full  cry,  with  jarring  sound,  in  rough 
accents,  with  loud  acclaim,  with  a  wild  whoop,  in  a  stage 
whisper,  in  winning  tones,  with  a  soft  cadence,  in  tune,  out 
of  tune,  in  a  high  key,  at  a  different  pitch. 


ADVERBIAL    PHRASES.  87 

Speech : — Explicitly,  distinctly,  intelligibly,  literally, 
lucidly,  plainly,  learnedly,  expressively,  simply,  legibly,  ob- 
viously, truly,  openly,  publicly,  graphically,  metaphorically, 
figuratively,  drily,  infallibly,  pointedly,  obscurely,  vaguely, 
ambiguously,  abstrusely,  falsely,  inexplicably,  dogmatically, 
diplomatically,  evasively,  deceptively,  hypocritically.  In 
plain  terms,  in  honest  truth,  in  dark  hints,  in  mysterious 
oracles,  with  learned  phrase,  with  effective  elocution,  in 
affected  language,  in  sportive  vein,  *  in  King  Cambyses' 
vein,'  with  artless  eloquence,  with  great  tact. 

The  above  list  shows  that  adverbs  are  nearly  all  derived 
from  Adjectives,  by  adding  the  syllable  ly  : — plain,  plainly. 
Hence  these  examples  also  furnish  corresponding  Adjectives. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  classes  of  Adjectives  of  Quality 
(p.  64)  furnish  corresponding  Adverbs.  Although  all  Ad- 
jectives cannot  be  changed  into  Adverbs,  a  good  many  can. 

10.  The  Adverbial  phrase  sometimes  appears 
with  the  preposition  dropt : — they  rode  ho7ne ;  he 
was  out  all  day. 

Those  are  abbreviated  expressions  for — towards  home, 
during  all  the  day. 

It  is  in  such  cases  that  Nouns  are  said  to  be  used  as 
Adverbs, 

11.  Adverbial  Clauses  are  extensively  used  in 
place  of  adverbs: — tarry  till  I  come;  he  was  as 
fresh  as  is  the  month  of  May. 

These  are  fully  exemplified  in  the  Analysis  of  Sen- 
tences. 

12.  Sometimes  Adjectives  appear  to  be  used  as 
Adverbs. 

(1.)  Certain  words  are  both  Adjectives  and  Ad- 


0»  THE    ADVERB. 

verbs  ;  as — ill,  much,  more,  most,  little,  first,  soft, 
fust,  clean. 

(2.)  The  Adjectives  that  accompany  Incomplete 
Verbs  are  apt  to  be  regarded  as  Adverbs  : — .stand 
firm  ;  be  sits  silent ;  the  broken  sheds  looked  sad 
tiiid  strange;  the  moon  shines  bright.  These  are 
properly  Adjectives. 

Errors  in  using  the  Adjective  for  the  Adverb.  Unless  in 
special  instances,  the  use  of  an  Adjective  to  qualify  a  verb, 
another  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  is  an  error: — remarkable 
strong,  for — remarkably  strong. 

Two  adjectives  of  quality  may  go  together,  as — *  a  tall, 
handsome  man,'  which  means  a  man  both  tall  and  handsome. 

Exercise  12. 
The  Adverb. 

1.  America  was  discovered   by  Columbus  in  the  year 

1492. 

2.  By  studying  economy  I  live  like  a  lord. 

3.  He  sang  as  merrily  as  a  lark  on  a  spring  morning. 

4.  Mrs.  St.  John  came  down  to  breakfast  every  morning 

in  that  summer  visit  of  the  year  1638. 

5.  Only  the  noble  lift  willingly  with  their  whole  strength 

at  the  general  burden. 

6.  He  performed    his    business    cheerfully    and    with 

despatch. 

7.  Half-a-league  onward. 

8.  Cannon  to  right  of  them,  cannon  to  left  of  them. 

9.  Somewhere,   I   knew  not  where— somehow,   I  knew 

not  how — by  some  beings,  1  knew  not  bj'  whom, 

10.  They  tug,  they  strain,  down,  down  they  go, 
The  Gael  above,  Fitz-James  below. 


EXERCISE    ON   THE    ADVERB.  89 

11.  And  I  awoke  in  struggles,  and  cried  aloud : — I  will 

sleep  no  more. 

12.  On  the  morrow  he  will  leave  me,  as  my  hopes  have 

fl  >wn  before. 

13.  Presently  my  soul  grew  stronger  :  hesitating  then  no 

lons^er^ — Sir,  said  I,  or  Madam,  truly  your  forgive- 
ness I  implore. 

14.  This  mounting  wave  will  roll  us  shoreward  soon. 

15.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down 
From  the  field  of  his  fame  fresh  and  gory. 

16.  M  my  a  time  and  oft 
In  the  Rialto  you  have  rated  me. 

17.  Sjme,  as  often  happens,  gave  up  the  pursuit  half-way, 

18.  In  the  first  place,  Natural  History  is  almost  exclu- 

sively a  science  of  observation. 

19.  Man   is  necessarily,    and    from   the   very  mode  and 

nnture  of  his  existence,  to  all  intents  a   speculative 
being. 

20.  There's  nothing  half  so  sweet  in  life 
As  Love's  young  dream. 

21.  Some  day  I  shall  be  cold,  I  know — 
But  ah,  not  yet,  not  yet ! 

22.  He  lay  still  until  t  was  within  a  hundred  yards  of 

him  ;  then  slowly  rising  on  his  fin-like  legs,  he 
lumbered  towards  the  river,  looking  askance  at  me, 

23.  But  we  steadfastly  gazed  on  the  face  that  was  dead, 
And  we  bitterly  thought  of  the  morrow. 

24.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still, 

25.  In  the  garb  of  old  Gaul,  with  the  fire  of  old  Rome. 

26.  Idle  after  dinner  in  his  chair 

Sdt  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 

27.  'Tis  years  since  last  we  met, 
And  we  may  not  meet  again. 


90  THE    ADVERB. 

28.  Oil !  darkly,  deeply,  beautifully  blue, 

As  some  one  somewhere  sings  about  the  sky. 

29.  A  little  of  that  goes  a  very  long  way. 

30.  I  am  ten  times  undone. 

31.  Nature  formed  me  of  her  softest  mould, 
Enfeebled  all  my  soul  with  tender  passions, 
And  sunk  me  even  below  my  weak  sex. 

32.  Where  shall  I  drive  to  ?     Home. 

33.  With  death  doomed  to  grapple 

Beneath  this  cold  slab,  he 
Who  lied  in  the  chapel 
Now  lies  in  the  Abbey. 

34.  I  slept  very  soundly,  and  waked  much  better  com- 

posed than  I  had  ever  been  before  ;  and  now  1  began 
to  think  sedately ;  and  upon  the  utmost  debate 
with  myself,  I  concluded  that  this  island,  which 
was  so  exceeding  pleasant,  fruitful,  and  no  farther 
from  the  mainland  than  as  I  had  seen,  was  not  so 
entirely  abandoned  as  I  might  imagine. 

35.  But  first  as  ho  flew,  I  forgot  to  say. 
That  he  hovered  a  moment  upon  his  way. 
If  his  eyes  were  good,  he  saw  by  night 
What  we  see  every  day. 

.  36.  A  murky  storm  deep  lowering  o'er  our  heads 
Hung  imminent,  that  with  impervious  gloom 
Opposed  itself  to  Cynthia's  silver  ray. 

37.  With  such  a  companion  to  tend  a  few  sheep. 
To  rise  up  and  play,  or  to  lie  down  and  sleep  ; 
I  was  so  good-humoured,  so  cheerful  and  gay. 
My  heart  was  as  light  as  a  feather  all  day. 
But  now  I  so  cross  and  so  peevish  am  grown, 
So  strangely  uneasy  as  never  was  known. 

Questions. 

1,  In  what  respect   do  the  Adjective   and  the  Adverb 
agree  ?    In  what  respect  do  they  differ  ? 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  ADVERB.  91 

2.  How  doos  the  Adverb  vary  the  statement  of  actions  ? 

Examples — walking,  looking,  working,  sailing. 

3.  What  are  the  diflferent  modes  of  Place  ?  Give  the  uses 

of — there,  near,  where,  whence,  whither. 

4.  What  are  the  Pronominal  Adverbs  ?     Why  are  they 

called  Pronominal  ? 

5.  What  are  the  chief  Adverbs  of  Duration  and  Repeti- 

tion ? 

6.  Besides  verbs,  what  parts  of  speech  are  qualified  by 

Adverbs  of  Degree  and  Measure  ? 

7.  Give    the   Comparative  Adverbs.     Why  are  they  so 

called? 

8.  What  are  the  Adverbs  of  Belief  and  Disbelief? 

9.  Which  class  of  Adverbs  is  most  numerous  ? 

10.  How  are  Adverbial  Phrases  made  up  ? 

11.  Refer  to  the  lists  of  Adjectives  (p.  64),  and  make  Ad- 

verbs out  of  as  many  of  theiii  as  possible. 

12.  When  the  Preposition  is  dropt,  what  form  does  the 

Phrase  assume  ? 

13.  What  is  an  Adverbial  Clause  ? 

14.  In  what    cases   do  Adjectives    seem  to  be   used  as 

Adverbs  ? 

15.  When  may  two  Adjectives  come  together  with  the 

same  noun  ?    In  what  cases  is  this  an  error? 


THE    PEEPOSITION. 

DEFINITION. 

1.  A  preposition  is  a  word  of  relation  placed 
before  a  Noun,  to  make  up  a  qualifying  phrase  :  — 
he  died  at  Calcutta  ;  in,  truth  they  do  not  know. 

The  Preposition  is  called  a  word  of  relation,  because  in 
itself  it  is  unmeaning  ;  it  relates  or  connects  other  words  — 
chiefly  nouns  or  verbs.  Its  most  usual  position  is  before  a 
noun  and  after  a  verb : — the  sun  shines  on  the  water.  It 
has  been  termed  a  /i/iA:-word. 

The  phrase  made  up  of  preposition  and  noun  is  mostly 
adverbial.  From  qualifying  verbs,  it  comes,  b}'  abbreviation, 
to  qualify  nouns  in  the  manner  of  the  Adj  ictive. 

The  equivalents  of  the  Noun  in  the  Sentence,— the 
Pronoun  and  the  Infinitive,  may  be  conjoined  with  a  pre- 
position, and  make  up  phrases  : — Speak  to  me  ;  go  with 
them ;  on  hearing  this  they  settled  the  matter  by  writing. 

In  such  expressions  as — '  in  all/  *  in  none,'  *  for  good,'  *  for 
better,'  *  for  worse,'  prepositions  are  combined  witk  adjectives 
instead  of  nouns.  These,  however,  are  exceptions  and 
irregularities,  brought  about  by  the  desire  of  being  short. 

In  relative  constructions,  the  preposition,  in  English,  may 
follow  its  word  at  a  distance: — Joliu,  whom  I  did  not  speak 
fo,  was  present ;  \vhat  he  is  accused  of,  we  shall  hear. 

'  The  two  greatest  mathaiuaticiaus  that  1  have  ever  had  the 
honour  to  be  known  to.* 

'The  man  (that)  you  were  so  anxious  to  discover,  I  have  at 
length  got  information  o/,' 

When  a  Preposition  is  folio \\ed  by  a  Noun  Clause,  it  is  no 


PREPOSITIONS    PRIMITIVE    AND   COMPOUND.  93 

lon.^r  regarded  as  a  Preposition,  but  as  a  Conjunction  : — *  since 
yesterday  '  (Preposition)  ;  *  since  (that)  I  left  home  '  (Conjunc- 
tion). Several  other  prepositions  appear  in  tliis  doable 
capacity :— till,  before,  after. 

2-  The  Prepositions  are  a  small  class  of  words, 
some  of  them  being  primitive  words  of  the  lan- 
guage, while  others  are  compound  and  derived. 

Frimitice  pyepositions\: — Of,  to,  from,  for,  by,  with,  in,  on, 
at,  over,  up,  down,  through. 

Compounds  :  —  Into,  unto,  upon,  along,  below,  before, 
beyond,  between,  until,  since,  among,  against,  but  ('Z'^  o?</!^, 
besides  (by  side  ofj^  near  (nigher)^  under,  after,  within, 
"Without. 

Farticiples  of  Verbs  .-—Save  (saving),  except  (excepting), 
during,  pending,  touching,  concerning. 

3.  There  are  numerous  phrases  serving  the  pur- 
pose of  Prepositions  : — in  spite  of  fate  ;  on- account 
of  the  reward ;  by  the  help  of  the  Lord. 

These  phrases  are  most  commonly  made  up  of  a  preposi- 
tion and  a  noun  followed  by  another  preposition.  Several 
siniple  phrases  may  be  strung  together : — in  consequence  of 
the  loss  of  the  ship. 

The  first  preposition  may  be  dropt,  or  fused  with  its 
noun  : — apart  from  the  result ;  this  side  the  river,  for — on  this 
side  (of)  the  river. 

4.  The  chief  of  the  primary  Prepositions  signi- 
fied 1)tVed/o?i,  and,  when  joined  to  verbs  of  action, 
or  movement,  gave  the  direction  of  the  move- 
ment. 

Of,  to,  from,  by,  in,  with,  over,  under,  up,  down,  after — 
all  appear  to  express,  in  the  first  instance,  the  direction  of 


94  THE    PREPOSITION. 

movement.  Some  of  them  also  signify  place,  or  local 
position  at  rest;  which  position  may  be  viewed  as  the  ter- 
mination of  the  movement. 

The  river  runs— //•o;n  the  mountains,  by  the  fields,  near 
the  church,  round  the  town,  throiKjh  the  common,  over  the 
rocks,  to  the  sea. 

Hence  several  prepositions  are  also  adverbs  of  directioa 
and  place.    (See  the  Adverb,  Place). 

The  Preposition  has  thus  two  faces,  one  to  the  Noun, 
another  to  the  Verb.  As  signifying  Direction  of  Move- 
ment, it  supposes,  first,  a  word  expressing  movement — 
commonly  a  verb :  and,  next,  a  point  to  move  towards,  or 
away  from,  which  is  usually  given  by  some  wun : — we 
walked  from  town,  to  the  seashore. 

The  preposition  is  not  necessarily  accompanied  by  a  noun. 
The  direction  of  the  movement  may  be  stated  without 
naming  a  specific  point  or  object : — rise  up  ;  come  near  ;  go 
before,  work  under.  In  such  cases  the  preposition  combines 
with  the  verb,  making  a  class  of  compound  verbs  with  new 
and  special  meanings  : — *  rise,*  and  *  rise  up,'  are  distinct 
verbs.     So — break,  break  oflf ;  get,  get  on. 

CASE-PREPOSITIONS. 

5.  The  prepositions — of,  to,  for,  from,  by,  with 
— express  meanings  that  were  given  in  the  classical 
languages  by  case-endings. 

These  are  the  oldest  and  most  widely  ased  of 
our  Prepositions. 

6.  Of  corresponds  to  the  possessive  case  in 
English,  and  the  genitive  case  in  other  languages. 

*  Of.*  expresses  a  variety  of  relations,  which  may  be  traced 
up  to  a  common  source.     The  original  import  of  the  root 


MEANINGS    OF   "  OF."  95 

was  'proceeding  from/  which  easily  led  to  the  meaning 
now  most  generally  signified,  namely,  *  belonging  to.'  For 
example,  *  the  strength  of  the  arm  '  means  a  property  pro- 
ceeding from  the  arm  ;  and  therefore  inhering  in  it,  or  be- 
longing to  it. 

1.  The  Partitive  meaning.  *0f*  is  used  to 
relate  the  part  of  anything  to  the  whole  : — the 
trunk  of  the  elephant ;  the  leg  of  the  table  ;  the 
leaves  of  the  book. 

In  such  phrases  as — The  Mayor  of  London,  London  is 
viewed  as  a  whole— houses,  streets,  people,  institutions — 
and  the  Mayor  is  part  of  that  whole. 

2.  The  Attributive  meaning.  *  Of  is  used 
to-  connect  an  abstract  property,  or  quality,  with 
the  concrete  : — the  breadth  of  the  road  ;  the  clear- 
ness of  the  sky  ;  the  meekness  of  the  dove. 

*  Breadth,'  *  clearness,*  *  meekness,'  are  not  actual  parts  of 
the  road,  the  sky,  the  dove ;  but  abstract  qualities,  named 
by  abstract  nouns. 

3.  The  Reference  meaning :  —  A  book  of 
Music  :  the  love  of  mankind  ;  the  cause  of  tem- 
perance ;  the  end  of  life. 

*A  book  of  music,'  is  a  book  referring  to  music,  or 
having  for  its  subject  music. 

*  The  love  of  mankind,'  is  love  having  reference  to  man- 
kind ;  *  the  love  of  sport,'  is  love  referring  to,  or  directed  to, 
sport. 

*The  cause  of  temperance,'  is  the  cause  referring  to,  or 
relating  to,  temperance. 

*  The  end  of  life,'  is  the  end  referring  to,  or  bearing  upon, 
the  act  of  living,  or  life. 


96  THE    PREPOSITION. 

This  meaning  is  often  opposed  to  the  partitive  meaning. 
'The  love  of  G<>(i* — may  mean  (1)  the  love  displayed  hy  God 
towards  man — God's  love  {partitive  meaning) ;  or  (2)  the  love 
put  forth  by  man  towards  God  {reference  meauini').  'The 
chief  end  of  man'— is  either  (1)  the  end  pursued  by  man — 
man's  own  end  {partitive) ;  or  (2)  God's  end  towards  man — 
God's  end  in  the  creation  of  man  {reference).  '  The  reform  of 
the  Government' — mi^ht  bo  either  a  reform  made  by  the 
Government  upon  something  else,  or  a  reform  made  upon  the 
Government  itself. 

7-  To.  The  primary  meaning  of  *to  '  is  motion 
towards:— brinj^  that  to  me;  to  your  tents,  O 
Israel ;  wheel  to  the  right. 

As  *  of  *  expresses  reference  from,  so  'to  *  expresses  refer^ 
ence  towards: — the  I)ve  of  David  to  Absalom  ;  the  hatred  of 
the  Jews  to  the  Gentiles;  with  love  to  man  this  cup  is 
fraught. 

8.  For.  The  primary  meaning  of  *  for  '  is  fore, 
in  front  of 

*  For '  is  used  to  express  various  relations,  more  or  less 
conntjcted  with  its  primary  meaning  :  — 

(1.)  Direction^  purpose,  benefit:  — he  sets  out  for  town; 
he  toiled /y/'  fame  ;  a  subscription /or  the  poor. 

(2.)  NotwitkHandinj,  in  spite  of:— for  all  his  learning, 
he  did  little  good  in  the  world  ;  for  all  their  precautions, 
the  enterprise  failed. 

(3.)  In  opposition  to  against ;— he  that  is  not  against  us 
is  for  us  ;  he  spoke  against  his  party,  and  voted  for  it. 

9.  Prom  signifies  forth,  forwards,  leg  inning 
from,  proceeding  from  : — he  came  from  London  ; 
from  Land's  End  to  John  o*Gr6'at's  House. 

It  is  widely  used  to  express  *  direction  from  '  among  things 
that  succeed  each  other  \—from  day  to  day ;  from  being  a 


MEANINGS    OF    "  WITH."  97 

shepherd  he  became  a  king ;  from  love  to  hatred  ;  from  one 
degree  of  indulgence  to  another ;  he  acted  from  a  sense  of 
justice. 

10.  By.  The  primary  meaninor  of  *  by  '  is  along- 
side of,  near  to  : — hy  Babel's  streams  ;  ly  the 
fire. 

The  following  applications  accord  with  the  original 
meaning : — they  stood  by  their  chief;  aided  by  his  friends  ; 
done  by  fairy  hands  ;  by  the  light  of  the  moon ;  they  came 
by  night. 

11.  With.  The  primary  meaning  of  *  with  '  is 
joining  or  uniting. 

It  is  used  to  express  the  following  connected  relations  :— 

(1.)  Companionship  : — abide  with  me  ;  go  with  them. 

(2.)  Possession  : — the  lady  with  the  silk  dress ;  he  came  to 
town  with  a  few  shillings  in  his  pocket ;  with  all  my  gifts  I 
come. 

(3.)  Opposition  (like  *  for ')  : — with  all  his  eloquence,  he 
failed  to  persuade  them. 

(4. )  Cause,  manner,  or  htstrument : — pale  with  fear ;  clothed 
with  majesty ;  he  felled  the_tree  with  his  axe. 

CLASSES  OF  PREPOSITIONS  GENERALLY. 

12-  The  entire  body  of  Prepositions  may  be 
classified  as  follows  : — 

13.  I  Place. 

1.  Rest  in  (the  where) : — in,  on,  at,  near,  by. 

In  a  cottage  near  a  wood ;  arrayed  in  festive  guise  ;  in 
what  concerns  thy  interest ;  blending  in  accord  ;  skilled  in 
his  profession  ;  in  fact ;  on  Sunium's  marble  steep  ;  at  home ; 
at  the  cannon's  mouth ;  at  any  rate ;  at  hberty ;  at  rest ; 
near  the  hills. 

9 


98  THE    PliEPOSITION. 

2.  Motion  mUli  direction  (the  whence  and  the 
whither)  : — to,  into,  unto,  towards  (up,  down), 
from. 

Death  comcth  to  all ;  they  disappeared  into  the  wood  ;  ho 
went  into  business  ;  fall  into  their  hands  ;  vanish  into  thin 
air;  come  i«^o  being  ;  t/«/o  that  place  the  tribes  go  up  ;  unto 
us  a  child  is  given  ;  they  marched  towards  the  city  ;  up  a 
steep  mountain  ;  come  down  the  street. 

3.  Flace  and  Direction  :  —  on,  over,  under, 
through,  behind,  between,  among,  upon,  near,  off, 
across,  beyond,  abaft,  above,  round,  against,  with- 
out. 

On  dry  land  ;  on  eagle's  wings  ;  on  hand  ;  over  the  flea ; 
a  shadow  o'er  his  halls  crept  year  by  year  ;  under  the  earth  ; 
under  fostering^  care  ;  he  had  soldiers  under  him  ;  through  the 
pine  wood  ;  through  his  energy  ;  behind  the  door ;  between 
the  tree  and  the  brook  ;  among  his  companions  ;  off  the 
mainland  ;  across  the  stream  ;  beyond  seas ;  beyond  his  con- 
ceptions ;  fl^oi'^  the  hamlet ;  against  the  Tiber's  mouth;  go 
round  the  world ;  without  the  city  ;  abaft  the  mast. 

14.  II.  Time  :— Since,  till,  until,  daring,  pend- 
ing, after,  ere. 

Since  Whitsunday;  till  daybreak  ;  until  mid-day  ;  during 
the  siege  ;  pending  the  trial ;  after  sunset ;  ere  this  time. 

15.  Many  Prepositions  of  place  may  be  applied 
to  time  by  governing  a  noun  of  time  :  as — in,  on, 
at,  before,  between,  by,  within,  about,  above,  near. 

In  the  month  of  December ;  on  Christmas  eve  ;  at  mid- 
night ;  before  the  break  of  day ;  between  three  and  four 
o'clock  ;  iy  next  month  ;  within  six  days  ;  about  foity  years; 
above  a  century  ;  near  the  end  of  the  week. 


PREPOSITIONS    AND    PHRASES    OF    END.  99 

16.  III.  Agency.  The  agent,  instrument,  or 
means  of  an  action  is  indicated  by  the  Preposi- 
tions— by,  through,  with ;  and  by  the  phrases — 
by  means  of,  by  virtue  of,  through  the  .  instrumen- 
tality of,  by  help  of,  by  means  of,  &c. 

Wrested  by  violence;  melted  bf/  heat;  he  succeeded 
through  sheer  impudence  ;  dug  up  with  a  mattock  ;  by  means 
0/ minute  investigation;  by  virtue  0/ its  healing  qualities; 
through  the  instrumentality  of  powerful  friends ;  by  help  of 
his  advice;  by  force  o/"  steadfast  attention. 

17.  IV.  End,  purpose,  motive,  or  reason  : — 
for,  from.  Phrases  : — out  of,  on  account  of,  by 
way  of,  for  the  sake  of,  for  the  ends  of,  in  con- 
sideration of,  on  the  score  of,  from  a  regard  to, 
with  a  view  to,  with  an  eye  to,  &c. 

A  struggle  for  life ;  And  hearts  that  once  beat  high  for 
praise ;  he  was  silent  from  bashfulness  ;  he  did  it  out  of 
pure  goodwill ;  he  was  pardoned  on  account  of  his  youth ; 
this  was  said  by  way  of  iniToduction ;  we  will  yield  for  the 
sake  of  peace  ;  a  knowledge  of  men  is  necessarj'  for  the  ends 
of  the  orator;  he  was  presented  with  a  purse  in  cotisideraiion 
of  his  services  ;  he  was  preferred  on  the  score  of  his  greater 
experience ;  the  work  was  suppressed  from  a  regard  to  the 
author's  reputation ;  the  house  was  furnished  with  a  vietv  to 
comfort ;  with  an  eye  to  the  main  chance. 

18.  V.  Reference : — on,  of,  about,  touching, 
concerning,  with  reference  to,  as  for,  as  to,  as  re- 
gards, on  the  subject  of,  on  the  matter  of,  on  the 
point  of,  in  respect  of,  in  the  event  of,  in  case  of. 

Burke  wrote  on  the  Sublime  ;  I  love  the  tales  0/ other 
days ;  about  this  matter  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  silence 
should  be  kept  touching  these  matters ;  a  law  was  passed  coH" 


100  THE    PREPOSITION. 

cerning  Trades-Unions ;  with  reference  to  your  letter  of  yes- 
terday ;  as  for  me  and  my  house  ;  there  wiis  no  question  as 
to  his  ability  ;  he  is  happy  as  regards  his  friends  ;  a  lecture 
was  delivered  on  the  subject  o/*heat ;  in  respect  o/age  he  was 
a  suitaMe  candidate  ;  in  the  event  o/the  enemy  landing  upon 
our  shores  ;  in  case  6/ his  struggling,  they  had  instructions  to 
force  him. 

19.  VI.  Separation  and  Exclusion : — wiihout, 
save,  except,  besides,  setting  aside,  apart  from,  far 
from,  but. 

Without  either  money  or  credit ;  all  save  only  Hermann  ; 
they  all  mutinied  except  the  first  mate ;  besides  wealth,  he 
had  contentment ;  setting  aside  the  consideration  of  means  ; 
apart  from  his  good  looks,  he  had  little  to  recommend  him ; 
far  from  the  madding  crowd's  ignoble  strife  j  nothing  re- 
mains on  earth  but  fame. 

20.  VII.  Inclination  and  Conformity  : — for, 
according  to,  in  accordance  with,  conformably  to, 
in  pursuance  of.  .  • 

For  better  or  for  worse;  according  to  the  practice  of  civil- 
ized nations  ;  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his  father  ; 
conformably  to  the  custom  of  the  town  ;  in  pursuance  of  the 
new  act. 

21-  VIII.  Aversion,  Opposition : — against,  in 
spite  of,  in  defiance  of. 

A  speech  against  the  repeal  of  the  Union ;  he  failed  in 
spite  of  all  his  endeavours  ;  in  defiance  o/' popular  opinion. 

22-  IX.  Substitution  : — for,  instead  of,  in  room 
of,  in  place  of,  as  a  substitute  for. 

An  eye  for  an  eye  ;  blessing  instead  of  cursing ;  in  room 


QUESTIONS    ON   THE    PUEP^filtiOit.  101' 

of  his   father ;  in  place  of  the  late\  iijc^iKribont  ^  iliey  ^ftW 
peat  as  a  substitute  for  coals. 

As  an  Exercise  point  out  the  prepositions  occurring  in 
previous  Exercises. 

Questions. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  calling  the  Preposition  a  word  of 

relation?  What  classes  of  words  are  related,  or 
connected,  by  the  preposition  ? 

2.  What  are  the  other  Parts  of  Speech  that  are  words  of 

relation  ? 

3.  What  words,  besides  the  noun,  may  be  followed  by  a 

preposition  ? 

4.  When  a  preposition  is  followed  by  a  Clause,  how  is  it 

regarded  ? 

5.  Give  the  most  simple  and  primitive  prepositions. 

6.  What  are  the  compound  prepositions  ? 

7.  What  prepositions  are  derived  from  Verbs  ? 

8.  Give  some  phrases  used  as  Prepositions.     How  are 

these  phrases  usually  made  up  ? 

9.  What   meaning   attaches   to  the   simple  or  primary 

prepositions  ?  How  does  this  meaning  connect 
them  with  Verbs  ?  How  does  it  connect  them  with 
Nouns  .P 

10.  What  are  the  prepositions  that  give  the  meanings  of 

the  case-endings  in  the  classical  languages  ? 

11.  W^hat  case,  in  the  English  noun,  does  *of '  answer  to  ? 

12.  What  different  meanings  has  *  of '?     Which  of  them 

is  found  in  the  following  examples: — the  heat  of 
the  fire,  the  wing  of  the  butterfly,  the  love  of  the 
child? 

13.  Give  the  meaning  of '  to,*  with  examples. 

14.  Distinguish  the  meanings  of  *  for.* 


102  THE    PREPOSITION. 

•  >.  1,5^  What  i8  the  primary  meaning  of  'from'?    How  is 

16.  "What  is  the  meaning  of  *  by '  ? 

17.  Give  the  primary  and  the  derived  meanings  of  '  with.* 

18.  Enumerate   the   Prepositions   of    Place,    under  the 

several  heads.     Show  that  direction  of  movement 
pervades  them  all.  ♦ 

19.  What  are  the  prepositions  of  Time  ?     Which  of  thera 

are  i  Iso  prepositions  of  Place  ? 

20.  What  prepositions  express  Agency?     Which  of  them 

are  borrowed  from  other  meanings  ? 

21.  What  are  the  primary  prepositions  suited  to  express 

End  or  purpose  ?     Give  phrases  signifying  End, 

22.  Give  prepositions  and  phrases  of  Reference. 

23.  What  is  the  chief  preposition  of  Separation  ?    Give 

•    phrases. 

24.  How  is  Inclivation  expressed  ?     How  Aversion  ? 

How  Substitution  f 


THE    CON-JXTNCTIOK 

dj:finition. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  words  of  relation,  joining 
sentences  together. 

Like  Prepositions,  Conjunctions  are  unmeaning  when  they 
stand  alone.     They  connect  different  sentences  or  affirraa-  . 
tions,  so  as  to   show  the  mutual  bearing  of  the  sentences 
conjoined. 

*  We  should  not  be  too  confident,  for  we  are  all  fallible.' 
The  two  distinct  sentences — *  we  should  not  be  too  confident,' 

*  we  are  all  fallible' — are  united  by  the  conjunction  'for;' 
which  also  gives  the  mutual  bearing  of  the  two  sentences, — 
namely,  that  the  second  is  a  reason  for  the  first. 

While  the  Preposition  unites  verbs  to  nouns,  or  nouns  to 
nouns  and  adjectives,  in  the  same  sentence,  the  Conjunction 
unites  different  sentences : — bring  the  letter  to  me,  and 
(conj.)  I  will  answer  it;  he  would  have  eaten  husks,  lut 
(conj.)  no  one  gave  them  to  him. 

Owing  to  abbreviations,  conjunctions  sometimes  appear  to 
join  words  in  the  same  sentence  : — John  and  I  will  see  to 
it.  This,  however,  is  a  contraction  of  two  sentences — John 
will  see  to  it,  and  I  will  see  to  it.  *  I  wish  to  see  you  hut 
not  him  *  is — I  wish  to  see  you,  hut  I  do  not  wish  to  see  him. 

*  This  has  been  don6  once  and  again  ' — this  has  been  done 
once,  and  it  has  been  done  again.  *  I  would  thou  wert 
either  cold  or  hot ' — I  would  either  that  thou  wert  cold,  or 
that  thou  wert  hot. 


104  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

2.  The  Conjunctions  are  a  small  number  of 
single  words  (some  used  also  as  Adverbs  or  as 
Prepositions),  together  with  Phrases. 

The  pure  and  proper  conjunctions  are — and,  if,  though, 
or,  nor,  either,  neither,  lest — all  very  extensively  used, 
*  And,'  *  but,'  *  if,*  and  *  or'  are  amongst  the  most  familiar 
words  of  the  language. 

The  conjunctions  that  have  an  Adverbial  character  are — 
as,  so,  also,  likewise,  otherwise,  now,  yet,  then,  when, 
while,  lest,  therefore,  wherefore,  nevertheliss.  Most  of 
these  are  still  used  as  Adverbs  ;  and  many,  if  not  all  of 
them,  may  have  been  adverbs  first. 

*  He  has  not  come  yet,^  *  Yet '  is  here  an  adverb  of  Time. 
I  am  hungry,  yet  I  cannot  eat ; '  *  yet '  is  here  a  conjunction. 

The  Conjunctions  that  are  also  Prepositions  are — for* 
before,  after,  since,  until,  ere,  except,  but.  These  words 
may  have  passed  from  prepositions  to  conjunctions  by  taking 
after  them  the  demonstrative  that^  foUowtid  by  a  clause  :— 
*for  I  repented,'  for  that  I  repented  ;  *  after  he  came,'  after 
that  he  came.  In  Old  English  constructions,  the  demon- 
strative is  often  retained :—  *  Fain  would  I  climb  but  that  I 
fear  to  fall.' 

The  word  *that  *  is  itself  a  conjunction  of  End. 

There  are  a  few  conjunctive  phrases,  or  compounds  of 
simple  conjunctions: — so  as,  so  then,  as  if,  in  order  that, 
seeing  that,  supposing  that,  inasmuch  as,  forasmuch  as,  for 
that  reason,  because  (by  means  of),  nevertheless,  as  well  as, 
not  only. 

3.  For  understanding  the  Conjunctions,  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  the  difference  between 
co-ordinate  and  dependent  (called  subordinate) 
Clauses. 


CLAUSES    CO-OKDINATE    AND    DEPENDENT.  105 

*  I  will  go,  if  you  will  come.'  These  are  two  distinct 
sentences,  but  the  one  is  made  conditional  or  dependent 
on  the  other : — I  will  go,  only  on  the  condition  that  you 
come;  if  you  do  not  come,  I  will  not  go.  Other  forms  of 
dependence  are — I  will  go,  though  you  come ;  I  will  not  go, 
unless  you  corae  ;  I  will  go,  when  you  come ;  I  will  go, 
because  you  have  come. 

*  I  will  go,  and  you  will  come,'  expresses  connection  with- 
out dependence: — I  will  go,  whether  you  come  or  not; 
still  you  are  to  come  also.  Such  a  union  of  sentences  or 
clauses  is  said  to  be,  not  dependent,  or  subordinating,  but 
co-ordinating  ;   *and'  is  a  co-ordinating  conjunction. 

*  I  will  go,  but  you  will  remain.*  There  is  still  an  absence 
of  condition,  qualification,  or  dependence : — I  am  to  go 
irrespectively  of  your  movements  ;  at  the  same  time,  you  are 
to  remain.    Hence  *  but '  is  also  a  co-ordinating  conjunction. 

*  Either  I  will  go,  or  you  will  go.'  These  two  clauses, 
although  connected  by  alternation,  are  yet  not  considered 
dependent  clauses  ;  *  either  '  and  *  or '  are  a  division  of  co- 

'  ordinating  conjunctions. 

Correctly  speaking,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  dependence 
shown  whenever  two  sentences  or  clauses  are  joined  by  a  eon- 
junction.  This  dependence  is  smallest  with  '  and  ; '  it  is  some- 
what greater  with  '  but,'  and  with  *  or  ; '  but  it  is  greatest  of 
all  with  '  if,'  and  the  subordinating  conjunctions.  It  is  at  *if ' 
that  the  line  is  drawn  in  dividing  the  conjunctions  into  two 
classes — the  one  signifying  comparative  independence,  or  co- 
ordination, the  other  dependence  or  subordination. 

CLASSES  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

4.  I.  Co-ordinating  Conjunctions.  These  are 
of  three  classes.  The  first  class  signify  the  smallest 
amount  of  connexion.  The  chief  of  the  class  is 
'  and,'  which  merely  adds  something  to  what  has 


106  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

been  already  said.    This  class  is  called  Cumulative. 

A  second  class  are  those  that  place  one  sentence 
or  clause  in  some  kind  of  opposition  to  another. 
The  strongest  word  of  the  class  is  *  but.*  There 
are,  however,  several  kinds  of  opposition.  The 
name  of  the  class  is  Adversative. 

A  third  class  make  one  clause  the  effect  or  co?i- 
seqrieiice  of  another.  Adverbs  of  cause  and  effect 
are  used  for  the  purpose.  The  chief  word  is 
*  therefore.'     The  name  of  the  class  is  Illative. 

5.  1.  Co-ordinating  Cumulative  Conjunctions. 
These  are — 


And 

first— then 

also 

secondly 

likewise 

further 

as  well  as 

moreover 

not  only — but 

now 

partly — partly 

well 

*  Death  opens  the  gate  of  fame,  and  shuts  the  gate  of 
envy  after  it.*  The  circumstance  expressed  in  the  second 
clause  is  merely  added  to  what  is  said  in  the  first. 

6.  2.  Co-ordinating  Adversative  Conjunctions. 
There  are  three  modes  or  degrees  of  opposition. 

(I.)  The  strong  form  of  opposition  given  in  the 
word  *  But.'  This  class  may  be  called  the  con- 
junctions of  arrest,  or  Arrestive  ;  because  they 
arrest,  or  stop,  the  full  carrying  out  of  an  asser- 
tion. The  following  are  of  this  class — 
But  only 

But  then  nevertheless 

Still  however 

Yet 


CO-ORDINATTXG    CONJUNCTIONS.  107 

Phrases — For  all  th;it,  at  the  same  time. 

*  Be  generous,  but  first  of  all  bo  just.*  This  saying  con- 
tains a  general  rule  or  precept — be  generous  :  we  are  not, 
however,  to  be  generous  at  all  costs  ;  a  stop  must  be  made 
when  being  generous  would  lead  to  being  unjust.  The  stop 
is  expressed  by  one  of  the  conjunctions  of  arrest. 

(2.)  A  somewhat  different  opposition  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  conjanetions — else,  otherwise. 
They  are  called  Exclusive, 

*  Bo  generous,  otherwise  you  will  not  be  much  respected.* 
This  means  that  by  not  being  generous,  you  will  not  be  re- 
spected : — Be  generous,  and  you  will  be  respected  ;  be  un- 
generous, and  you  will  not  be  respected. 

(3.)  The  conjunctions  called  Alternative  are  well 
marked  : — *  either — or/  *  whether — or,*  '  neither — 
nor.' 

*  Either  Rome  must  destroy  Carthage,  or  Carthage  will  be 
a  perpetual  threat  to  Rome.* 

7-  3.  Co-ordinating  Illative  conjunctions  ;  that 

is,  conjunctions  of  effect  or  consequence.     They 
are  : — 

Therefore  thus 

wherefore  so 

hence  so  that 

whence  then 

consequently  so  then 
accordingly 

*I  have  believed,  therefore  have  I  spoken.'  There  are 
here  two  distinct  sayings  ;  and  the  second  is  given  as  an 
effect  or  consequence  of  the  first. 


108  THE   CONJUNCTION. 

Exercise  13. 
CO'Ordinat ing  Conjun ctions. 

^    1.  Fool8  build  houses,  and  wise  men  live  in  them. 

2.  I  have  no  tears,  else  would  I  weep  for  thee. 

3.  It  is,  doubtless,  a  hard  case;  still,  there  is  no  help 

for  it. 

'**'  4.  Energy  is  a  good  thing :  only,  it  must  be  guided  by 
discretion. 

5.  Unhappily,  however,  this  is  rarely  the  case. 

6.  Praise  is  the  reflection  of  virtue,   but  it   takes  the 

colour  of  the  glass  or  body  that  giveth  the  reflec- 
tion. 

7.  A  man's  nature  runs  either  to  herbs  or  to  weeds, 

8.  Fierce  are  Albania's  children,  yet  they  lack 
Not  virtues,  were  those  virtues  more  mature. 

9.  I  got  me  servants  and  maidens,  and  had  servants  born 

in  my  house ;    also  I  had  great    possessions   and 
small  cattle.     This  also  is  vanity. 

10.  He  was  often  warned  of  the  dano^er,  but,  for  all  that, 

he  persisted  in  his  mad  attempts. 

11.  This  agreeth  not  well   with  me;    wherefore,  I  will 

not  continue  it. 

12.  llius    her    innocence    was    not   only    cleared,  but 

crowned. 

—   13.  Virtuous  and  wise  he  was,  yet  not  severe. 

0^  14.   He  was  so  enraged  that  he  never  spoke  to  me  again. 

15.  He  was  called  away  by  business  of  importance,  other- 

wise, he  would  have  stayed  a  few  days  longer.. 

16.  They  are  idle,  and,  consequently,  discontented. 

17.  Not  animation,  however,  but  dignity,  is  the  ruling 

characteristic. 


SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS.  109 

18.  Another  came  ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill, 
Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he. 

19.  True,  he  served  the  state  in  his  youth  ;  but  then  he 

betrayed  it  in  his  old  age. 

20.  He  was  kind  not  only  to  me,  but  to  others.    He  was 

not  only  just,  but  also  generous. 

21.  There  still  remain  for  him  cares  and  duties,  and, 

therefore,  hopes. 

22.  Whether  he  stays  or  goes,  is  to  me  a  matter  of  indif- 

ference. 

23.  The  date  as  well  as  the  nature  of  this  book  have  been 

mistaken. 

24.  Partly  because  they  blend  me  with  his  line, 
And  partly  that  I  did  his  sire  some  wrong. 

25.  I  know  that  I  have   not  much  to  recommend  me ; 

nevertheless,  I  wish  to  be  loved. 

26.  He  told  me  to  go,  and  accordingly  I  went. 

27.  It  is  well  first  to  watch  and  then  to  speed. 

28.  They  left  the  town  abruptly,  so  that  I  had  no  oppor- 

tunity of  seeing  them  again. 

29.  I  admit  that  the  thing  is  very  pretty  :  at  the  same 

time  I  fail  to  see  what  purpose  it  serves  in  such  a 
place. 

8.  II.  Subordinating  Conjunctions.  These 
apply  to  cases  where  one  sentence  is  entirely  sub- 
ordinate to,  or  dependent  on,  another.  They  are 
headed  by  If.  There  are  different  modes  of  sub- 
ordination, or  dependence. 


10 


110  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

9.  1.  Condition.     These  are — 

If  without 

though  provided  that 

if  not  "whether 

unless  notwithstanding 

as  if  supposing  that 

except  albeit. 

10.  2.  Conjunctions  of  End  or  Purpose  :— 
that,  in  order  that,  so — as,  as — as,  lest. 

11.  3.  Conjunctions  of  Reason  and  Cause: — be- 
cause, for,  since,  as,  whereas,  inasmuch  as,  for  that 
reason. 

12.  4.  The  relative  Adverbs  introducing  clauses 
of  time  may  be  called  Subordinating  Conjunctions 
of  Time : — when,  while,  as,  until,  ere,  before, 
after,  since. 

Exercise  14. 

Con/uHctions  generally. 

1.  Long  and  curious  speeches  are  as  fit  for  despatch,  as  a 

robe  or  a  inautle,  with  a  long  train,  is  for  a  race. 

2.  If  this  be  good-nature,  let  me  always  be  a  clown ;  if 

this  be  good-fellowship,  let  me  always  be  a  churl. 

-3.  It  is   turning  out   a   fine   day,   notwithstanding  the 
morning  was  wet. 

4.  Unless  you  study,  you  will  not  become  learned. 

5.  He  husbanded  his  energies  so  as  to  have  something  to 

spare  for  a  great  occasion. 

6.  We  often  dispute  about  fictitious  characters  as  if  they 

were  real. 


EXERCISE  ON  CONJUNCTIONS  GENERALLY.   Ill 

7.  Wt'll,  then,  since  you  insist  upon  it,  I  consent. 

8.  Expect  nothing,  lest  you  be  disappointed. 

9.  Supposing  that  the  story  were  true,  what  then  ? 

10.  If  not  a  rogue,  he  was  a  fool. 

11.  If  you  prick  us,  do  we  not  bleed  ?    If  you  tickle  us, 

do  we  not  laugh  ?     If  you  poison  us,  do  we  not 
die  ?    And  if  you  wrong  us,  shall  we  not  revenge  ? 

12.  Stay  a  little,  that  we  may  make  an  end  the  sooner. 

13.  It  is  better  to  meet  dangers  half-way,  than  to  keep 

too  long  a  watch  upon  their  approaches  ;  for  if  a 
man  watch  too  long,  it  is  odds  he  will  fall  asleep. 

14.  'Twas  Milton  struck  the  deep-toned  shell. 
And,  as  the  choral  warhlings  round  him  swell, 
Meek  Newton's  self  bends  from  his  state  sublime, 
And  nods  his  hoary  head,  and  listens  to  the  rhyme. 

15.  If  all  be  well,  we  shall  leave  home  in  a  week. 

16.  Luther  said,  *  I  will  go  to  Worms,  though  it  should 

rain  Duke  Georges  for  nine  days.' 

17.  It  is  good  discretion  not  to  make   too  much  of  any 

man  at  the  first ;  because  one  cannot  hold  out  that 
proportion. 

18.  How  often  have  I  blessed  the  coming  day, 
When  toil  remitting  lent  its  turn  to  play. 
And  all  the  village  train,  from  labour  free. 
Led  up  their  sports  beneath  the  spreading  tree, 
While  many  a  pastime  circled  in  the  shade, 
The  young  contending  as  the  old  surveyed. 

19.  There  is  no  trusting  to  the  force  of  nature,  except  it 

be  corroborate  by  custom. 

20.  Who  did  for  me  what  none  beside  have  done, 
Nor  shrank  from  one  albeit  unworthy  thee. 

21.  'Tis  said  nobly  ; 

For  princes  never  more  make  known  their  virtues. 
Than  when  they  cherish  goodness  where  they  find  it : 
They  being  men,  and  not  gods,  Contarino, 
They  can  give  wealth  and  titles,  but  not  virtues. 


112  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

Questions. 

1.  In  what  respects  do  Conjunctions  and  Prepositions 

agree  ?     In  what  respects  do  they  differ  ? 

2.  Give  the  words  that  are  most  exclusively  Conjunctions. 

3.  Mention  words  that  are   hoth  Conjunctions  and  Ad- 

verbs.    How  can  it  be  known,  in  each  case,  whether 
a  word  is  an  Adverb  or  a  Conjunction  ? 

4.  What  Adverbs,  are   also   Prepositions?     How    may 

Prepositions  be  supposed  to  become  Conjunctions  ? 

6.  What  Demonstrative  Adjective  is  employed  as  a  Con- 
junction ? 

6.  Mention  any  phrases  serving  as  Conjunctions  ? 

7.  Give  examples  of  dependent  sentences. 

8.  Give  exanu'lcs  of  co-ordinating  sentences. 

9.  Show  that  there   are  degrees  of  dependence  between 

connected  sentences.     Give  examples   of  the  two 
extremes. 

10.  What  are  the  classes  of  Co-ordinating  Conjunctions  ? 

11.  Mention  the  chief  of  the  Cumulative  Conjunctions. 

12.  Mention  the  chief  of  the  Adversative  Conjunctions. 

13.  What  are  the  conjunctions  of  consequence  ?     What  are 

they  called  ? 

14.  Pick  out  of  the  list  of  cumulative  conjunctions  some 

that  have  the  meaning  of  comparison  as  well  aa 
of  cumulation  or  addition. 

15.  Give  the  modes  or  degrees  of  opposition,  in  the  Co- 

ordinating Adversative  Conjunctions. 

16.  What  are  the  Alternative  Conjunctions  ? 

17.  What  is  the  chief  of  the  Subordinating  Conjunctions  ? 

18.  Give  the  Conjunctions  of  Condition. 

19.  Refer  to    separate    heads   the    Subordinating    Con- 

junctions— when,  for,  that,  since,  though,   while, 
whereas,  lest,  after. 


INTERJECTIONS.  113 

Interjections. — Certain  words,  such  as — hark  !  hush  !  ah  ! 
oh  !  alas! — are  not  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  sense  of  being 
parts  of  a  sentence.  They  are  simply  cries  uttered  in  strong 
feeling,  and  stand  by  themselves  :  hence  they  are  called 
Interjections ^  that  is,  words  thrown  in  among  the  ordinary 
forms  of  sentence.  They  are  suited  to  diflferent  emotions  : 
JO  f/  IS  expressed  by — Hey!  Huzza!  Hurrah!  ffrief — Ah  I 
Alas!  Hoo!  wonder— Kah  ?  Eh?  contempt— Yiidgel  Tut! 
Pshaw!  Tush!  and  many  other  emotions  by  many  other 
words. 


INFLECTION. 


Inflection  means  the  changes  made  upon  words 
to  suit  various  relations. 

The  Noun  and  the  Pronoun  are  inflected  for 
Oender  and  for  Number.  They  are  also  varied  for 
Case.     These  chanj^es  are  called  Declension. 

The  inflection  of  the  Adjective  and  the  Adverb 
to  express  difierences  in  Degree,  is  called 
Comparison. 

The  inflection  of  the  Yerb  to  express  differences 
in  Person,  Number,  Time,  &c.,  is  called 
Conjugation. 

The  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  In- 
terjection, are  not  inflected. 

INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS-DECLENSION. 
•       GENDER. 

1.  The  Gender  of  Nouns  corresponds  to  the 
distinctions  of  sex. 

The  gender  of  names  for  the  male  sex,  as — 
prince,  brother,  is  called  the  Masculine   gender. 


MODES    OF   DISTINGUISHING    GENDER. 


115 


The  gender  of  names  for  the  female  sex,  as — 
princess,  sister,  is  called  the  Feminine  gender. 

Names  for  things  without  sex,  as — chair,  table, 
desk,  are  said  to  be  of  the  Neuter  gender,  that  is, 
of  neither  or  no  gender. 

Many  words  are  applied  to  both  sexes  alike  ;  as 
friend,  child,  relative.  These  are  said  to  be  of  the 
Common  gender. 

The  names  of  most  of  the  inferior  animals,  as  cat,  par- 
tridge, sparrow,  are  of  the  common  gender.  It  is  only  in 
the  most  important  and  best  known  animals  that  we  are  at 
the  pains  to  note  the  sex. 

2.  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the 
gender  of  Nouns. 

I.  By  employing  different  words. 

The  following  are  the  chief  examples  : — 


Mas.  Fem. 

Boy  Girl 

Brother  Sister 

Bull  Cow 

Cock  Hen 

Drake  Duck 


Mas,  Fem. 

Father         Mother 
Gander       Goose 
Gentleman  Lady 
Husband    Wife 
King  Queen 


Mas,        Fem, 
Man        "Woman 
Monk      Nun 
Nephew  Niece 
Son         Daughter 
Uncle     Aunt. 


This  is  not  strictly  an  inflection,  or  change  made  on  a  word 
but  a  change  of  word. 

II.  By  prefixing  a  word  indicating  the  sex ;  as 
he-wolf,  she-wolf;  bull-calf,  cow-calf ; man-servant, 
maid-servant. 


III.  By  the  use  of  distinctive  suflB.xes  or  ter- 
minations. The  most  common  are  *  ess,'  and  *  ix,' 
added  to  the  masculine  to  make  the  feminine. 


IIG 


INFLECTION    OF   NOUNS. 


The  following  are  examples  of  the  addition  of  ess  : — 


Mas, 

Fern. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Abbot 

Abbess 

Host 

Hostess 

Poet 

Poetess 

Actor 

Actress 

Instructor 

Instructress 

Priest 

Priestess 

Baroa 

Baroness 

Lad 

Lass 

Prince 

Princess 

Duke 

Duchess 

Lion 

Llouess 

Prophet 

Prophetess 

Emperor 

Empress 

Master 

Mistress 

gheplierd 

Shepherdess 

Giant 

Giantess 

Negro 

Negress 

Songster 

Songstress 

God 

Goddess 

Pation 

Patroness 

Tiger 

Tigress 

Heir 

Heiress 

Peer 

Peeress 

Traitor 

Ti-aitress 

The  following  are  examples  of  Ix,  whicU  is  used  for  a 
much  smaller  number  of  woHs  : — 

Mas,  Fern,  Mas,  Fern, 

Administrator      Administratrix  Heritor  Heritrix 

Director  Directrix  Testator         Testatrix 

Executor  Executrix 

Other  feminine  terminations  are  seen  in  such  words,  as — 
vix-en  (from  *  fox '),  hero-ine,  czar-ina,  Joseph-ine, 
Wilhelm-ina,  apin-ster. 


The  adjectives  *  male'  and  *  female*  are  extensively  used  to 
express  differences  of  gender,  as  *  a  male  singer,'  *  a  female 
crocodile :  *  but  this  usage  does  not  properly  fall  under  de- 
clension, or  inflection  for  gender. 

Inanimate  objects  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  male  or 
female,  and  are  then  said  to  be  personified.  The  Sun,  Time, 
Winter,  Death,  are  made  masculine  :  the  Moon,  the  Earth, 
Spring,  Hope,  Mercy,  Peace,  are  feminine.  This  does  not 
appear  in  Inflection,  but  in  the  use  of  the  corresponding 
pronouns. 

Questions. 

1.  How  many  genders  are  there  ?  What  do  they  corres- 
pond to  ?  What  names  belong  to  the  Neuter 
Gender?  Of  what  gender  are  the  names  of  the 
lower  animals  ? 


QUESTIONS  ON  DECLENSION  FOR  GENDER.    117 

2.  What  are  the  three  principal  ways  of  distinguishing 

gender  ?      Which   of    them    is   not    properly    an 
inflection  ? 

3.  What  are  the  most  common  suffixes  for  distinguishing 

gender  ?     Mention  others  that  are  less  common. 

4.  By  what  other  means  is  gender  distinguished  ?     Is 

this  properly  an  Inflection  ? 

5.  When  is  gender  ascribed  to  inanimate  objects  ? 

6.  Give  the  gender  of — enemy,  prophet,  author,  Time, 

Mercy,  vixen,  breath,  snow,  wolf,  tiger,  salmon. 

7.  Give  the  feminines  of — Earl,  Duke,  Marquis,  traitor, 

director,  he-bear,  lion,  instructor,  testator. 


NUMBER. 

1.  When  a  Noun  (or  Pronoun)  names  a  single 
object,  it  is  said  to  be  of  the  Singular  Number, 
as  'brush/  'field;'  when  more  than  one  are 
named,  the  Noun  usually  undergoes  a  change,  and 
is  then  said  to  be  of  the  Flural  Number,  as 
'  brushes,'  '  fields.' 

The  Plural  is  formed  in  English,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  by  adding  s  to  the  Singular : — book, 
books. 

2.  1.  When  the  Noun  ends  in  a  sharp  mute 

(p,   /,  t,  th   [in   thin],   kj,  the   's'  has  its  sharp 
sound  (sea)  ; — drops,  chiefs,  rats,  moths,  rooks. 

2.  When  the  Noun  ends  in  a  flat  mute  (h,  v,  d, 
th  \_the'],  g\  in  a  liquid  (m,  n^  Z,  r),  or  a  vowel,  the 
's'  has  its  flat  sound  z: — slabs,  waves,  roads, 
booths,  logs,  rims,  pins,  walls,  rafters,  cantos. 


118  INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS. 

3.  When  the  IsTonn  ends  in  a  sibilant  or  hissing 
Bound  (s,  z,  sh,  ch,  .r),  the  original  *  es  *  is  retained: — 
losses,  pbizzes,  lash<?5,  birches,  hoaxes. 

Many  words  ending  in  o  take  'es'  in  the  plural: — 
calicoes,  cargo^«,  echo^5,  heroes,  mulatto^*,  negroes,  potato^*, 
volcanoM. 

Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the 
'  y  *  into  *  ies '  to  form  the  plural :— beauty,  beauttV*.  *  Bay,* 
*  alley,'  &c.,  having  a  vowel  before  *y,'  are  regular: — bay*, 
alley*. 

These  irregularities  are  matters  of  spelling  and  not  properly 
of  inflection.  They  do  not  affect  the  pronunciation  as  the 
other  changes  do. 

4.  Nouns  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  ending  in  f  or 
fe  preceded  by  a  long  vowel,  or  by  '  1,'  change 
the  *f'  into  *  V,' : — lea/,  leaves  ,•  li/e,  lives;  sel/, 
selves  ;  wol/J  wolves. 

In  these  inflections,  the  *  s,*  coming  after  the  flat  mute  v, 
Bounds  z:  the  *  e,*  as  in  *  cargoes,'  &c.,  is  not  sounded. 

Words  of  French  origin  do  not  in  general  follow  this 
rule: — brie/«,  chiefs,  hefs,  fi/e?*,  gric/»,  handkerchi(/«,  mis- 
chie/*,  proofs. 

Other  exceptions  are — dwar/j  dwarfs  ;  hoof  hoofs  ;  roof, 
roofs  ;  reef  reefs. 

*  Staff,'  *  turf,*  and  *  wharf  have  both  forms. 
When  the  vowel  before  *  f  *  is  short,  the  plural  is  formed 
regularly  by  adding  *  .* — stu^,  stu^. 

3.  A  small  number  of  Nouns  form  their  plurals 
by  obsolete  modes  of  inflection. 


MODES  OF  FORMING  THE  PLUKAL. 


119 


1.  By  adding  en  to  the  singular  : — ox,  oxen.  This  was  the 
prevailing  mode  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

2.  By  adding  ry :— tenantry,  yeomanry,  peasantry,  Irishry, 
Englishry.  This  plural  has  a  collective  force.  Macaulay 
applies  *  Englishry  '  to  the  English  settlers  in  Ireland.  So 
*  Irishry  '  might  be  used  for  the  Irish  settlers  in  Scotch  or 
English  towns. 

3.  By  changing  the  vowel  of  the  singular  : — man,  men  ; 
goose,  geese;  mice;  feet;  teeth;  brethren. 

4-  Some  N'ouns  have  the  same  form  in  both 
numbers :  —  deer,  sheep,  swine,  grouse,  teal, 
mackerel,  trout,  salmon,  heathen,  cannon. 

5-  Many  vrords  borrowed  from  other  languages 
retain  their  original  plurals. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  usual : — 

SISGULAB.  TluRAL 

Formula  Formulae 

Larva  Larvae  Stratum 

Nebula  Nebulae  Criterion 

Radius  Radii  Ana'ysis 

Animalculum  AnimalculaBasis 

Datum  Data  Axis 

Medium  Media  Focus 

Momentum  Momenta  Appendix 

Genus  Genera  Beau 

When  a  foreign  word  passes  into  common  use,  the 
tendency  is  to  give  it  the  English  plural:  as— geniuses, 
memorandums,  dogmas,  formulas,  cherubs,  seraphs,  bandits. 

6.  Some  N'ouns  have  two  plurals,  with  separate 
meanings. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL.       SIKGULAR.    PLURAj;. 

Phenomenon  Phenomena  Vortex      Vortices 


Strata 

C'iteria 

Ana'yses 

Bases 

Axes 

Foci 

Appendices  Seraph 

Beaux  Cherub 


Series 
Species 
Messieurs 
Mesdames 
Banditti 
Virtuoso  Virtuosi 
Seraphim 
Cherubim 


i-eries 

Species 

Sir 

Madam 

Baodic 


120  INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS. 

Penii)- — pennies  (a  number  of  separate  coins) ;  pence  (for 
a  collective  sum,  as  '  four-pence  *)  ;  die — dies  (stamps  for 
coining),  dice  (for  gaming) ;  geniuses  (men  of  original  power), 
genii  (spirits) ;  brothers  (by  blood),  brethren  (of  a  commun- 
ity) ;  cloths  (different  kinds  of  cloth),  clothes  (garments). 

7.  The  Plurals  of  a  few  Nouns  differ  in  mean- 
ing from  the  Singulars  : —  compass,  compasses  ; 
content,  contents;  domino,  dominoes;  good,  goods; 
letter,  letters;  manner,  manners;  number,  num- 
bers ;  vesper,  vespers. 

8.  Some  Nouns  are  used  only  in  the  Plural  :— 
amends,  annals,  antipodes,  arrears,  bellows,  dregs, 
entrails,  goods,  measles,  molasses,  mumps,  news, 
oats,  odds,  pincers,  scissors,  snuffers,  spectacles, 
thanks,  tidings,  tongs,  irousers,  victuals,  wages. 

9.  Class  Nouns  in  the  singular  are  preceded  by 
one  of  the  articles  : — a  street,  the  street. 

The  plural — *  streets' — does  not  require  an  article.  In 
nouns  that  have  no  plural  ending,  as  *  sheep,'  the  absence 
of  the  article  is  a  mark  of  the  plural.  Singular — a  sheep ; 
plural— sheep. 

10-  Proper,  Material,  and  Abstract  Nouns,  from 
their  nature,  have  no  plural. 

A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  one  thing,  as  Cape  Horn. 
As  there  are  not  two  things  of  that  name,  the  name  cannot 
be  plural.  Family  names  may  have  the  plural,  as — the 
Browns,  the  Stuarts. 


QUESTIONS    ON    DECLENSION    FOR   NUMBER.       121 

A  Material  noun  is  a  name  for  the  whole  collection  of  ona 
kind  of  material,  as — gold,  clay. 

An  Abstract  noun  is  a  name  for  an  agreement  among 
things,  and  is  naturally  singular — as  justice. 

These  nouns  that  do  not  take  a  plural  may  appear  in  tho 
singular  without  an  article  ;  they  never  take  the  indefinite 
article.  We  say  Solon,  silver,  holiness ;  we  do  not  say  a 
Solon  (except  by  what  is  called  a  figure  of  speech),  a  silver, 
a  holiness, 

11.  The  Plural  of  Compound  Nouns  is  generally 
formed  by  inflecting  the  principal  Noan  : — fathers- 
in-law,  goings-on,  m<?n-of-war. 

Questions. 

1.  What  is  the  general  form  of  the  plural  inflection? 

2.  What  classes  of  nouns  conform  to  the  general  rule 

for  forming  the  plural,  and  what  classes  do  not  .^ 

3.  In  what   sense  are  such   plurals   as  *  cargoes '    and 

*  beauties,'  not  an  exception  to  the  general  rule? 

4.  What  nouns  ending  in  /  do  not  form  the  plural  in 

ves  ? 

5.  Give  the  plurals  of — bin,  chair,  church,  street,  child, 

grotto,   stafi^,   stuff",    handkerchief,    window,    ally, 
spray,  aviary,  valley,  wreath. 

6.  Mention  obsolete  modes  of  inflection,  with  examples. 

7.  Mention  nouns  having  the  same  form  in  both  num- 

bers. 

8.  What  are  the  plurals  of — species,  seraph,  criterion, 

formula,  focus,  bandit,  virtuoso,  Sir,  Madam,  larva  ? 
How  comes  it  that   these    plurals  are    irregular  ? 
Which  of  them  sometimes  take  the  plural  in  *  s  '? 
11 


122  INFLECTION    OF   NOUNS. 

9.  What  is  the  difiFerence  between  *  geniuses '  and  '  genii.' 
*  brothers    and  *  brethren/  *  pennies  '  and  '  pence*  ? 

10.  Give  examples  (1)  of  phirals  that  differ  in  meaning 

from  their   singulars ;  (2)   of  nouns  used  only  in 
the  plural. 

11.  When  the  plural  and  the  singular  hnve  the  same  form, 

how  are  they  distinguished?     In  what  nouns  does 
the  singular  take  an  article  before  it  ? 

12.  What   nouns  have  no   plural?     Explain   why.     Do 

they  take  an  article  ? 

13.  How  do  we  form  the  plural  of  compound  nouns  ? 

CASE. 

1.  Case  IS  an  inflection  of  the  Noun,  showing 
its  relation  to  other  words  :  as — the  boy's  book  ; 
where  the  addition  of  *ft  to  *  boy  *  shows  that 
*  book  *  is  the  property  of  *  boy.' 

There  are  said  to  be  three  cases  in  English — 
Nominative,  Possessive,  and  Objective  ;  but,  in 
nouns,  the  only  case  where  inflection  occurs  is  the 
Possessive. 

Kominative — boy. 

Possessive boy 's. 

Objective boy. 

2.  The  Possessive  is  formed  by  adding  to  the 
Noun  the  letter  s  preceded  by  an  apostrophe  : — 
George,  George's.  .  In  the  Plural  no  addition  is 
made,  except  the  apostrophe: — ladies,  ladies'.  If 
the  Plural  does  not  end  in  *  s  ,'  the  general  rule 
for  the  singular  is  then  applied  :  *  the  children's 
bread.' 


THE    POSSESSIVE    CASE.  123 

3.  The  *  s  *  is  omitted  in  the  singular  when  too 
many  hissing  sounds  would  come  together  :  *  So- 
phocles' plays,*  'for  justice*  sake.* 

The  omission  of  *  s  *  takes  place  chiefly  in  poetry.  In 
prose  the  general  rule  is  adhered  to  as  much  as  possible : 
we  say  Burns's,  Keats's,  Chalmers's. 

4.  In  Compound  Nouns  the  suffix  is  attached 
to  the  last  word  : — son-in-law's  estate  ;  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia's  prerogative. 

Even  when  there  are  two  separate  names,  the  '  s  *  is 
added  only  to  the  last :.— Brown  and  Robinson's  ship ; 
Peter,  Thomas,  and  Andrew's  office. 

5.  The  Possessive  Inflection  is  confined  chiefly 
to  the  names  of  persons,  animals,  and  personified 
objects  : — Jupiter's  nod,  the  horse's  mettle,  the 
moon's  rising. 

We  cannot  use  the  possessive  at  large,  and  say — the 
table's  legs,  gold's  yellowness,  redness's  degrees ;  we  must 
gay — the  legs  of  the  table,  the  yellowness  of  gold,  the  degrees 
of  redness. 

Questions. 

1.  How  many  cases  are  there  in  English  ?    Which  of 

them  is  the  noun  inflected  for  ?     What  is  the  use 
of  the  inflection  ? 

2.  How  is  the  Possessive  formed?      What  exception  is 

there  to  the  rule  ? 

3.  Where  is  the  inflection  put  in  compound  nouns  P 

4.  What  are  the  limits  to  the  use  of  the  Possessive  ? 


124  INFLECTION   OF   PRONOUNS. 

INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS. 

1.  Pronouns  are  inflected  for  case.  They  have 
three  cases — Nominative,  Possessive,  Objective., 
When  a  pronoun  stands  as  the  object  after  a  verb 
or  a  preposition,  it  takes  a  distinct  form  called  the 
Objective  case  : — *  he  met  me  ' ;  '  I  went  to  them  J 
Kouus  have  no  such  distinct  form. 

To  express  difiference  of  gender,  different  words  are  used. 
The  Personal  Pronouns — T,  we,  thou,  you,  ye — are  the  fame 
for  both  genders.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  have  dif- 
ferent words  for  different  genders. 

Masculine — He 
Fiminine — She 
Neuter It 

Difference  of  Number  is  also  expressed  by  different 
words. 

Shir/ular,  I,  thou,  he,     she,     it 

Tlwal,  We,         you,  or  ye,  they. 

2«  The  Personal  Pronouns  are  thus  declined  : — 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative,  Fossessive,  Objective. 

Ut  Persoti,         I  Mine  Me 

2nd  Per807%,       Thou  Thine  Thee 

PLURAL. 

ut  Person,         We  Ours  Us 

2nd  Person,       Ye  or  You     Yours  You 

3.  The  Demonstratives,  or  Pronouns  of  the 
.  third  person,  are  declined  as  follows  : — 


SINGULAR. 

Nominative^ 

He 

JPossessive,     His 

»» 

She 

Hers 

It 

They 

Its 

PLURAL. 

„            Theirs 

INFLECTIONS    FOR    CASE.  125 


Objective f     Him 
„  Her 

It 


..  Them 

*'This '  and  *  that '  are  not  inflected  for  case :  they  have 
a  plural  inflection — *  these,'  '  those.' 

The  Indefinite  pronoun  *  one,'  is  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar, but  has  no  plural :  *  one's  discretion  should  be  one's  tutor.* 

4.  The  Relative  Pronouns  that  are  declined  are 

*  who  '  and  *  which.' 

*  Who '  is  declined — possessive,  *  whose,*  objective,  *  whom.' 
'Which'  is  declined — possessive,   *  whose,'  objective^  ^hich,* 

*  What  'and  *  that '  are  indeclinable. 


*  Of  whom '  and  *  of  which'  are  used  for  the  possessive 
'  whose.'  For  co-ordination,  *of  whom  '  and  '  of  which'  are 
preferable;  for  restriction,  *  whose'  is  better.  The  compound 
adverb  *  whereof '  is  a  substitute  for  *  whose,'  and  is  chiefly 
restrictive.  The  similar  compounds  —  wherein,  whereto, 
whereby — are  mostly  restrictive. 


5.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  being  the  same 
as  the  Relative,  their  inflection  is  the  same  : — 
whose  book  is  this  ?  whom  do  you  mean  ?  what  am 
I  to  understand  by  this  ? 

Many  good  writers  and  speakers  use  the  forms  '  who  do 
you  mean?'    *  who  to?'    *  who  for?'     *  who   from?'      If 
these  forms  be  admissible,  the  objective  of  *  who '  is  *  whom,' 
.  or  *  who.' 


126  INFLECTION    OF   ADJECTIVES. 

Questions. 

1.  What  inflection  is  peculiar  to  Pronouns?      How   is 

difiFerence  of  gender  expressed  in  Pronouns  ?    How 
difference  of  number  ? 

2.  Enumerate  and  decline — (I)  the  Personal  Pronouns  ; 

(2)    the     Demonstrative;     (3)    the   Relative; 
(4)  the  Interrogative. 

4.  When  should  we  use  *  of  whom  *  or  *  of  which,'  and 
when  *  whose  ? ' 

4.  What  is  the  objective  of  *  who  ?  * 

INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES-COMPARISON. 

1.  Adjectives  are  inflected  to  signify  differences 
of  Degree :— small,  smaller,  simxWesL  This  is 
called  their  Comparison. 

There  are  said  to  be  three  Degrees  of  Compari- 
son ;  the  Positive,  *  small ; '  the  Comparative, 
*  smaller;'  the  Superlative,  *  smallest.'  The 
Positive  is  the  Adjective  in  its  simple  or  unin- 
flected  form. 

2.  I.  In  the  regular  Inflection,  the  Comparative 
is  formed  by  adding  er  to  the  Positive  ;  the  Super- 
lative by  adding  est  to  the  Positive. 

When  the  Adjective  ends  in  *  y '  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, the  *  y  *  is  changed  into  *  i ' : —  greedy,  greedier, 
greed  iV«^ 

A  final  consonant  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  is  usually 
doubled  ; — mac/,  ma.dder,  maddesi. 

3.  11.  When  a  word  has  more  than  two  syllables, 
pr  is  a  compound,  the  comparison  takes  place  by 
means  of  the  Adverbs  more  and  most:— mord 
admirable,  most  admirable ;  more  useful,  most 
■useful. 


lEREGULAR   COMPARISONS.  127 

Any  adjective  may  be  compared  by  *more'  and  'most,' 
if  the  ear  is  better  satisfied  with  the  combination  of  sounds 
produced  : — A  most  wise  judge  ;  a  more  trusty  friend. 

4.  in.  Some  words  are  irregularly  compared  : 
as — good,  better,  best ;  bad,  worse,  worst ;  much, 
more,  most ;  little,  less,  least. 

*  Best '  is  contracted  from  Anglo-Saxon  *  bet-est ; '  *  least  * 
from  *  let-est.'  In  like  manner  *  nighest '  is  contracted  into 
nea:t,  *  latest'  into  last. 

Some  adjectives  in  the  comparative  and  the  superlative 
degree  have  no  corresponding  adjective  in  the  positive  de- 
gree : — further,  furthest  (from  forth)  ;  inner,  inmost  or 
innermost  (from  in);  outer  or  utter,  outmost  or  utmost,, 
outermost  or  uttermost  (from  out)  ;  upper,  upmost  or  upper- 
most (from  up) ;  higher,  highermost ;  nether,  nethermost ;. 
undermost ;  topmost ;  southmost. 

5.  The  Comparative  is  used  when  two  things^ 
are  compared,  the  Superlative  when  more  than 
two. 

*  Of  the  two  brothers,  George  is  the  steadier  and  the  more 
promising.' 

In  such  cases  many  writers  would  use  the  superlative. 
The  comparative  does  not  make  the  meaning  any  clearer.. 

The  Superlative  of  eminence. — 'Most'  is  sometimes  used  to 
give  eminence,  or  to  express  intensity : — 3Iost  potent,  grave, 
and  reverend  Seigniors  ;  most  nohle  Sir ;  it  is  most  true  ;  most 
extraordinary! 

6.  The  Demonstrative  Adjectives  'this,'  *that,' 
are  inflected  for  Number  : — these  men  ;  tJiose  trees. 
The  Numeral  Adjectives,   *  other,'  '  another,'  when 


128         ^  INFLECTION  OF  ADVERBS. 

used  nlone,  like  Pronouns,  are  inflected  for  Number 
and  Case  : — let  others  crowd  the  bouse  of  mirtb  ; 
another  s  money  is  as  good  as  mine. 

Questions. 

1.  Are  Adjectives  inflected  only  for  differences  of  de- 

gree ? 

2.  What  are  the  regular  inflections  for  Comparative  and 

Superlative  ?     In  what  cases  are  these  modified  ? 

3.  What  adjectives  are  compared  by  *  more  *  and  *  most  ?  * 

4.  Mention  some  irrec:ular  comparisons.     Mention  com- 

paratives and  superlatives  that  have  no  positives. 

6.  What  difference  in  use  is  there  between  the  Com- 
parative and  the  Superlative  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  Superlative  of  eminence  ? 

7.  What  adjectives  are  inflected  for  Number? 

INFLECTION  OF  ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  are  inflected  only  for  Degree.  They 
are  compared  in  the  same  manner  as  Adjectives  : 
— fast,  faster,  fastest  ;  early,  earlier,  earliest  ; 
recently,  more  recently,  most  recently. 

Adverbs  are  compared  chii-fly  by  '  more  '  and  *  most.' 
The  great  mass  of  Adverbs  end  in  *  ly,*  and  very  few  of 
these  are  compared  by  *  er  *  and   *  est,'  especially  in  prose. 

2.  A  few  Adverbs  coincide  with  irregular  Ad- 
jectives : — well,  better,  best,  badly  or  ill,  worst, 
worst,  much,  more,  most. 

Exercise  15. 

Infections  for  Gender^  ywhber^  Cisp^  and  Degree, 
1.  'Tis  hers  to  pluck  the  amaranthine  flower. 


EXERCISE    ON    INFLECTIONS.  129 

2.  May  no  rude  hand  deface  it 
And  its  forlorn  hie  jacet  ! 

3.  But  how  can  he  expect  that  others  should 
Build  for  him,  sow  for  him,  and  at  his  call 

Love  him,  who  for  himself  will  take  no  heed  at  all  F 

4.  She  was  as  good  as  she  was  fair, 
None — none  on  earth  above  her! 

5.  To  live  with  them  is  far  less  sweet 
Than  to  remember  thee. 

6.  Here's  a  sigh  to  those  who  love  me, 
And  a  smile  to  those  who  hate. 

7.  Yes  !  where  is  he,  the  champion  and  the  child 
Of  all  that's  great  or  little,  wise  or  wild  ; 

Whose  game  was  empires,  and  whose  stakes  were 
thrones  ? 

8. .  *  Whom  the  gods  love,  die  young,'  was  said  of  yore. 

9.   Ave  Maria !  blessed  be  thq  hour, 

The  time,  the  clime,  the  spot  where  I  so  oft 
Have  felt  that  moment  in  its  fullest  power 
Sink  o'er  the  earth  so  beautiful  and  soft. 

10.  These   affairs   must  be   settled  without  a  moment's 

delay. 

11.  I  was  not  born  for  courts,  or  great  affiirs  ; 

1  pay  my  debts,  behave,  and  say  my  prayers, 

12.  Of  the  amends  recovered,  little  or  nothing  returns  to 

those  that  had  suffered  the  wrong,  but  commonly 
all  runs  into  the  prince's  coffers. 

13.  I   shall   prove   these  writings  not  counterfeits,    but 

authentic,  and  the  contents  true,  and  worthy  of  a 
divine  original. 

14.  Can  we  with  manners  ask  what  was  the  difference  ? 

15.  In  his  hand 
He  took  the  golden  compasses,  prepared 
In  God's  eternal  store,  to  circumscribe 
This  universe,  and  all  created  things. 


130  •     INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 

16.  AniniMls  in  their  generation  are  wiser  than  the  sons  of 

men  ;     but  their  wisdom  is  con  lined  to  a  few  par- 
ticulars, and  lies  in  a  very  narrow  compass. 

17.  For  there  is  music  here  that  softer  falls 
Than  jutals  from  blown  roses  on  the  grass  ; 
Or  night-dews  on  still  waters  between  walls 
Of  shadowy  granite,  in  a  gleaming  pass  ; 
Alusic  that  gentlier  on  the  spirit  lies 

Than  tired  eyelids  upon  tired  eyes. 

18.  When  he  is  best,  he  is  little  more  than  a  man ;  and 

when  he  is  worst,  he  is  little  better  than  a  beast. 

INFLECTION  OF  VERBS-CONJUGATION. 

1.  The  commonly  enumerated  inflections  of  the 
Verb  are  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Pe.rson,  Number. 

VOICE. 

2.  Every  Transitive  Verb  has  an  Active  form, 
or  voice,  and  a  Passive  form,  or  voice  : — Columbus 
discovered  America  (Active)  ;  America  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  (Passive). 

The  object  of  the  verb  in  the  Active  voice  becomes  J;ho 
subject  in  the  Passive  voice ; — the  farmer  sold  the  ox;  the 
ox  was  sold  by  the  farmer.  Intransitive  verbs  have  no 
object,  and  consequently  have  no  passive  voice.  The  In- 
transitive verbs —  *  walk,'  *  run,'  *  fall,'  are  confined  to 
the  active  form. 


The  forms — *  was  discovered,*  *  was  sold,*  are  not,  properly 
speaking,  inflections  of  the  verbs  'discover*  and  *  sell '  To 
make  the  inflection,  another  verb—*  was,'  is  called  in.  Hence 
'was'  is  called  an  auxiliary  or  helping  verb.  Other  inflec- 
tions of  the  verb  are  helped  out  by  similar  *  auxiliaries,'  The 
verb  *  to  be '  is  the  auxiliary  of  the  passive  inflection. 


EXPLANATION    OF   THE    MOODS.  131 

MOOD. 

3.  The  Moods  are  the  Indicative,  SuhjuncHve, 
Imperafive,  and  hifiniiive  Under  the  same  head 
we  may  include  the  Farticiple  and  the  Gerund, 

*  Mood '  is  the  manner  or  mode  of  the  action. 

The  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Subjunctive  Mood  when  the 
action  is  affirmed  or  subjoined  us  a  condition: — I  will  go  to 
the  meeting,  if  I  be  in  town  ;  I  will  tell  him,  if  I  see  him. 

The  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Indicative  Mood  when  the 
action  is  simply  stated,  or  indicated  :—l  am  here;  I  shall 
be  in  town  to-morrow  ;  I  saw  him  and  told  him. 

A  verb  in  the  Imperative  Mood  expresses  command, 
direction,  entreaty: — go  and  tell  him  that  I  am  here;  keep 
your  powder  dry  ;  spare  my  friend. 

This  is  the  raood  usually  named  Imperative,  *  Command '  is 
expressed  in  other  ways  : — Thou  shall  not  steal  j  You  must 
not  do  it. 

A  verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mood  neither  affirms  nor  com- 
mands, but  merely  names  an  action  in  the  manner  of  a 
noun  : — to  walk  is  better  than  to  run,  for  *  the  act  of  walk- 
ing,' and  '  the  act  of  running.' 

*  To  walk '  is  the  form  usually  given  as  the  Infinitive  ; 
but  the  form  *  walking '  often  fulfils  the  same  function  : — • 
walking  is  better  than  rwming.  This  form  is  called  the 
*  infinitive  in  ing  : '  it  diflfers  from  the  participle  of  the 
same  form  in  being,  like  a  noun,  the  subject  or  the  object 
of  a  sentence. 

These  two  infinitive  forms — to  walk,  walking,  to  com- 
mand, commanding — have  thus  something  in  common  with 
the  noun,  and  something  in  common  with  the  verb. 


182  INFLECTION   OP   VERBS. 

They  agree  with  the  noun  and  dififer  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  verb  as  follows  : — They  may  be  (1)  the  subject 
or  the  object  of  a  sentence  ;  (2)  the  form  in  *  ing  '  may  be 
qualified  by  an  adjective,  especially  a  possessive  adjective : — 
y  mr  walking  is  as  fast  as  my  running. 

They  ditfer  from  the  noun  and  agree  with  other  parts  of 
the  verb  in  taking  an  object  (when  transitive)  ;  to  command 
(commanding)  an  army  is  a  very  high  trust. 

There  are  two  Participles  : — the  imperfect  or  incomplete 
participle,  expressing  an  action  going  on — passing,  drawing, 
destroying ;  and  the  perfect  or  complete,  expressing  an  action 
completed — past,  drawn,  destroyed. 

In  transitive  verbs,  the  imperfect  participle  is  active- 
dragging,  pushing,  arresting;  while  the  perfect  participle 
is  passive — dragged,  pushed,  arrested.  In  intransitive  verbs 
the  only  difference  of  meaning  is  that  of  incomplete  and 
complete — going,  gone.' 

There  is  also  a  verbal  noun  in  *  ing : ' — there  came  a 
moaning  on  the  wind  ;  the  sighing  of  the  tempest.  It  has 
all  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  noun,  and  differs  from 
the  infinitive  of  the  same  form  (1)  in  taking  the  indefinite 
article  before  it,  and  (2)  in  not  taking  an  object  after  it. 

Farther,  there  is  a  participial  adjective  in  *  ing  : ' — a 
startling  cry ;  a  striking  appearance.  This  has  all  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  the  adjective,  and  differs  from  the 
participle  (1)  in  not  taking  an  object  after  it,  and  (2*)  in  not 
expressing  any  particular  time. 

There  are  thus  four  different  parts  of  speech  having  the 
same  form — Infinitive,  Participle,  Noun,  and  Adjective,  ail 
ending  in  *  ing.'  The  Infinitive  and  the  Participle  differ 
in  being  used  the  one  as  a  noun,  the  other  as  an  adjective  : 
at  the  same  time,  they  differ  from  both  noun  and  adjective, 


EXEKCISE    ON   INFLECTIONS    IN    **  ING."  133 

and  agree  with  each  other  in  taking  an  object  after  them,  as 
well  as  in  less  obvious  particulars.  What  chiefly  distin- 
guishes the  participle  from  all  the  other  forms  is  its  express- 
ing time. 

The  perfect  participle  also  is  used  as  an  adjective  : — *  a 
stiffled  cry,'  *  a  muffled  drum/  Some  negative  adjectives 
have  the  form  of  the  perfect  participle — *  unopposed,'  *  dis- 
interested ; '  but  there  are  no  verbs  *  unoppose,*  *  disinterest,' 
and  these  must  be  parsed  as  simple  adjectives  of  quality. 

The  Gerund  is  the  infinitive  form  used  with  the  sense  of 
purpose  or  intention  : — I  went  to  meet  him  ;  prepared  to  go  ; 
difficult  to  get  at ;  scissors  to  grind ;  made  for  celling ; 
QxmQdifor  Jighting, 

Exercise  16. 

Injinitivey  FarticipUy  Adjective^  Verbal  Noun,  and 
Gertmd. 

1.  It  is  a  miserable  thing  to  live  in  suspense. 

2.  Talking  overmuch  is  a  sign  of  vanity. 

3.  It  is  a  task  indeed  to  learn  to  hear. 

4.  A  sudden  trembling  seized  on  all  his  limbs. 

5.  Pushing  rapidly  on,  we  found  our  worst  anticipations 

-  realized. 

6.  A  piercing  cry  rang  through  the  startled  air. 

7.  Why  let  the  stricken  deer  go  weep 
The  hart  ungalled  play. 

8.  We  live  on 
Loathing  our  life,  and  dreading  still  to  die, 

9.  Doing  good,  disinterested  good,  is  not  our  trade. 

12 


134  INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 

10.  Or  else  my  project  fails, 
Which  WAS  to  pkase-:  now  1  want 
Spirits  to  enforce,  arts  to  enchant, 
And  my  ending  is  despair. 

11.  Story  !  I  have  none  to  tell,  Sir. 

TENSE,  P;ERS0N,  NUMBER. 

4-  Tense  is  the  variation  of  the  verb  to  express 
the  time  of  an  action  : — *  I  come,'  present ;  *  I 
came/ j9rts/.  Other  varieties  of  time  are  expressed 
by  means  of  auxiliaries: — I  have  come;  I  am 
coming  ;  will  come,  <fec. 

5.  The  verb  is  varied  according  to  the  Person  of 
the  subject:  —  *1  ivrote,'  first  person;  *  Thou 
writestf*  second  person  ;  '  he  writes,*  third  person. 

6-  There  is  also  a  partial  inflection  for  Number : 
— he  writes  ;  they  write.  In  the  past  tense  there 
is  no  such  inflection  : — he  wrote,  they  wrote, 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  PROPER. 

7.  To  bring  together  all  the  forms  of  the  verb 
is  to  conjugate  it.  There  are  said  to  be  in  Eng- 
lish two  conjugations.  Such  verbs  as  'drive,* 
with  the  two  inflections  *  I  drovo^'  and  *  I  am 
driven,*  are  called  verbs  of  the  Old  or  the  Strong 
Conjugation:  such  verbs  as  *  educate*  with  the 
same  inflection  in  *  I  educated*  and  *  I  am  educated,'' 
are  called  verbs  of  the  New  or  the  Weak  Conjuga- 
tion. 

A  verb  of  the  Old  conjugation  has,  in  all,  seven  inflected 
forms:  —  drive,     drove,    driving,    driven,    drives,     drivest, 
,  drovest.      A  verb  of   the   New  conjugation,  as  'educate,* 
has  but  six. 


TWO   CONJUGATIONS. 


135 


A  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  forras  made  by  inflect- 
ing the  verb  itself,  and  forms  made  by  help  of  what  are  called 
Auxiliary  Verbs.  The  following  is  the  conjugation  of  the 
inflected  forms  of  the  verb  itself. 


NEW    CONJUGATION. 


To  CaU. 


Present  Tense. 
Call 


Fast  Tense. 
Called 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


Perfect  Participle. 
Called 


SINGULAR. 

\st  Person      .     I  call 

2nd    „       .     .     Thou  eallest 

^rd    ,,       ,     ,     He  calls 


PLURAL. 

\st  Person  ,     We  call 

2nd     ,,       ,     Ye  or  you  call 

2rd     „        .     They  call 


PAST  TENSE. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  called 

2.  Thou  calledst 

3.  He  called 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  called 

2.  Ye  or  you  called 

3.  They  called 

Imperative,  Call.     Infinitive^  To  call,  calling. 

Participles. 

Imperfect,  Calling.     Perfect,  Called. 


OLD     CONJUGATION. 


Present  Tense, 
Drive. 


To  Drive. 

Past  Tense. 
Drove, 


Perfect  Participle. 
Driven. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  drive 

2.  Thou  drivest 

3.  He  drives 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


PLURAL. 

1.  We  drive 

2.  Ye  or  you  drive 

3.  They  drive 


136 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


PAST  TENSE. 
SINGULAR.  I  PLURAL. 

1.  I  drove  1.  We  drove 

2.  Thou  drovest  2.  Ye  or  you  drove 

3.  He  drove  |       3.  They  drove 

Imperative^  Drive.     Injintttve,  To  drive,  driving, 

Fariiciples, 

Imperfect^  Driving.     Ferfect,  Driven. 

AUXILIARIES  TO  THE  INFLECTION  OF  THE  VERB. 

8-  Tlie  Auxiliary  Verbs,  which  are  joined  to 
other  verbs  to  assist  in  expressing  tenses  not  ex- 
pressed by  inflections,  are  Be^  Have,  Shall,  and 
Will. 

Do,  Mat/y  and  Can,  would  be  ranked  as  auxiliaries  if  we 
were  to  admit  the  *  Emphatic*  and  the  *  Potential'  moods 
into  the  conjugation  of  the  Verb. 


Present  Tense, 
Am. 


To  Be. 

Fast  Tense, 
Was. 


Ferfect  Participle, 
Been. 


SINGULAR, 

1.  I  am 

2.  Thou  art 

3.  He  is 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  was 

2.  Thou  wast 

3.  He  was 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

PLURAL. 

1.  We  are 

2.  Ye  or  you  are 

3.  They  are 

PAST  TENSE. 

PLURAL. 

1.  We  were 

2.  Ye  or  you  were 

3.  They  were 


Imperative,  Be.     Infinitive,  To  be. 

Participles. 
Imperfect,  Being.     Perfect,  Been. 


THE    AUXILIARIES 


AND    *'IIAVE. 


137 


The  verb  *  to  be '  has  a  peculiar  inflection  to  express 
2ontinf?fcncy  or  conditionality  ;  it  is  the  only  real  conditional 
or  subjunctive  mood  in  English,  and  is  in  the  past  tense. 


Conditional  Mood  of  tlie  Verb  '  TO  BE.' 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I  were 

2.  If  thou  were 

3.  If  he  were 


PLURAL. 

1.  If  we  were 

2.  If  ye  were 

3.  If  they  were. 


Inflections  with  the  auxiliary  '  To  Be.'— By  joining  the 
perfect  participle  of  a  verb  to  the  verb  '  be  '  throughout,  we 
form  the  Passive  Voice  ;  as— he  is  called,  we  were  called,  to 
be  called,  bein^  called. 

By  similarly  joining  the  imperfect  participle,  we  form  the 
Progressive,  incomplete,  or  imperfect  form  of  the  active 
voice: — *I  am  driving,*  *I  was  driving,'  &c. 


To  Have. 

Fresent  Tense 

Fast  Tense             Perfect  Participle 

Have. 

Had.                        Had. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

SINGULAR. 

I  have 
Thou  hast 
He  has 

PLUEAL. 

1.  We  have 

2.  Ye  or  you  have 

3.  They  have 

PAST  TENSE. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

I  had 

Thou  hadst 
He  had 

1.  We  had 

2.  Ye  or  you  had 

3.  They  had 

Inflections  with  the  auxiliary  *To  Have.'— Followed  by 
the  perfect  participle  of  another  verb,  '  have '  forms  two 
tenses:— 'I  have  called'  (present  perfect),  *I  had  called' 
(past  perfect). 


138 


INFLECTION   OF   VERBS. 


The  imperfect  participle  *  having,'  joined  to  the  perfect 
participle  of  a  verb,  yields  a  perfect  participle  active  :  — 
*  having  called,'  *  having  driven.* 

*  Have,'  *had,'  &c.,  followed  by  *  been,'  and  the  imperfect 
participle  of  a  verb,  form  tenses  of  continued  action; — *  I 
have  been  driving,'  •  I  had  been  driving/ 


SINGULAR 

1.  I  shall 

2.  Thou  Shalt 

3.  Ho  shall 


1.  1  should 

2.  Thou  shoiildst 

3.  He  should 


1.  I  will 

2.  Thou  wilt 

3.  He  will 


ShaU. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

PLURAL. 

1.  We  shall 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall 

3.  They  shall 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  We  should 

2.  Ye  or  you  should 

3.  They  should 

wm. 

PRESENT  TENSE 

1.  We  will 

2.  Ye  or  you  will 

3.  They  will 


PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  would  1.  We  would 

2.  Thou  would st  2.   Ye  or  you  would 

3.  He  would  3.  They  would 

Inflections  with  the  auxiliaries  *  Shall  '  and  *  Will/— 
*  Shall  *  and  *  Will'  are  employed  to  form  the  Future  tenses 
in  English  : — *  I  shall  come,'  *he  will  come.* 

*  Shall '  originally  means  obligation,  debt.  Chaucer  says 
*the  faith  I  shall  to  God.'  *  He  shall  suffer,'  is — *he  owes 
to  suffer,'  *  he  is  about  to  suffer.' 

*  Will,'  on  the  other  hand,  means  intention  or  resolution, 
on  the  part  of  the  agent,  he  being  free  to  do  as  he  pleases  in 


COMPLETE    CONJUGAIION. 


139 


the  matter.     *I  will  go,'  means  that  it  is  in  my  option  to  go 
or  not  to  go,  and  that  I  decide  for  going. 

COMPLETE   CONJUGATION   OF    THE   VERB   WITH 
AUXILIARIES. 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 


Indicative  Mood, 

PRESENT. 
JPresent  Indejinite. 


SINGULAR. 

\st  Terson      .     I  drive 

^nd  Person     .     Thou  drivest 

Zrd  Ferson     .     He  drives 


PLURAL. 

\st  Ferson      We  drive 

2nd  Ferson    Ye  or  you  drive 

Zrd  Ferson      They  drive 


1.  I  am  driving 

2.  Thou  art  driving 

3.  He  is  driving 


1.  T  have  driven 

2.  Thou  hast  driven 

3.  He  has  driven 


1.  I  have  been  driving 

2.  Thou  hast  been  driving 

3.  He  has  been  driving 


Present  Progressive, 

II.  We  are  driving 
2.  Ye  or  you  are  driving 
3.  They  are  driving 

Present  Perfect, 

1.  We  have  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  driven 

3.  They  have  driven 

Present  Continuous. 

1.  We  have  been  driving 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  driv- 
ing 

3.  They  have  been  driving 


1.  I  drove 

2.  Thou  drovest 

3.  He  drove 


PAST. 

Past  Indejinite, 

1.  "We  drove 

2.  Ye  or  you  drove 

3.  They  drove 


140 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


1.  T  WAS  driving 

2.  Thou  wast  driving 

3.  He  was  driving 


1.  I  had  drivftn 

2.  Thou  hadst  driven 

3.  He  had  driven 


Past  Progressive. 

1.  We  were  drivino^ 

2.  Ye  x)r  you  were  driving 

3.  They  were  driving 

Past  Perfect, 

1.  We  had  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  driven 

3.  They  had  driven 

Past  Continuous. 


1.  I  had  heon  drivinf^ 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  driving 

3.  He  had  been  driving 


1.  We  had  been  driving 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  driv- 

ing 

3.  They  had  been  driving 


1.  I  shall  drive 

2.  Thou  wilt  drive 

3.  He  will  drive 


FUTURE. 

Future  Indefinite, 

1.  We  shall  drive 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  drive 

3.  They  will  drive 


Future  Progressive. 


1.  I  shall  be  driving 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  driving 

3.  He  will  be  driving 


1.  We  shall  be  driving 

2.  Y"e  or  you  will  bo  driving 

3.  They  will  be  driving 


Future  Perfect, 


1.  I  shall  have  driven 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  driven 

3.  He  will  have  driven 


1.  We  shall  have  driven 

2.  l^e  or  you  will  have  driven 

3.  They  will  have  driven 


Future  Continuous, 


1.  I  shall  have  been  driving 

2.  Thou  wilt  havebeendrivini? 

3.  He  will  have  been  driving 


1.  We  shall  have  been  driving 

2.  Y''e  or  you  will  have  been 

driving 

3.  They  will  have beendriving 


Jmpei-ative  Mood, 
Drive. 


COMPLETE    CONJUGATION.  141 

Subjunctive  Mood,  * 

PRESENT. 

Indefinite.— {\i)  1^  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  j'ou,  they — drive. 
Frogres&ive. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — be  driving. 
Perfect. — I,  thou,  he,  wo,  ye  or  you,  they — have  driven. 
Continmus. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — have  been 
driving. 

PAST. 

Indefinite. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — drove. 
Progressive. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — were  driving. 
Perfect. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — had  driven. 
Continuous. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — had  been 
driving. 

FUTURE. 

Indefinite. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — should  drive. 
Progressive. — I,  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — should  be 
driving. 

Perfect— ly  thou,  he,  we,  ye  or  you,  they — should  have 
driven. 

Continuous. — I,  thou,  he,    we,   ye  or  you,  they— should 
have  been  driving. 

Infinitive  Mood, 

Indefinite. — (To)  drive,  driving. 

Progressive. — (To)  be  driving. 

Perfect. —  (To)  have  driven. 

Continuous.— i^o)  have  been  driving. 

Gerund — To  drive  ;  (for)  to  drive ;  for  driving. 

Participle. 
Imperfect. — Driving.  Perfect. — Having  driven. 

Continuous. — Having  been  driving. 

*  It  will  be  an  exercise  for  the  pupil  to  write  out  these  forms 
at  length. 


142 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


PASSIVE    VOICE. 
Indicative  Mood, 


Fresent  Indefinite, 


SINGULAB. 

1.  T  am  driven 

2.  Thou  art  driven 

3.  He  is  driven 


PLURAL. 

1.  Wo  are  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  are  driven 

3.  Thev  are  driven 


Fresent  Progressive. 


1.  I  am  being  driven 

2.  Thou  art  being  driven 

3.  He  is  being  driven 


1.  We  are  being  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  are  being  driven 

3.  They  are  being  driven 


Present  Perfect. 


1.  I  have  been  driven 

2.  Thou  hast  been  driven 

3.  He  has  been  driven 


1.  We  have  been  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  driven 

3.  They  have  been  driven 


1.  I  was  driven 

2.  Thou  wast  driven 

3.  He  was  driven 


PAST. 

Past  Indefinite. 

1.  We  were  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  were  driven 

3.  They  were  driven 

Past  Progressive, 


1.  I  was  being  driven 

2.  Thou  wast  being  driven 

3.  He  was  being  driven 


1.  I  had  been  driven 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  driven 

3.  He  had  been  driven 


1.  We  were  being  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  were  being  driven 

3.  They  were  being  driven 

Past  Perfect. 

1.  We  had  been  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  driven 

3.  They  had  been  driven 


FUTURE. 


Future  Indefinite. 


1.  I  shall  be  driven 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  driven 

3.  He  will  be  driven 


1.  We  shall  be  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  be  driven* 

3.  They  will  be  driven 


COMPLETE    CONJUGATION.  143 

Future  Perfect, 


1.  I  shall  have  heen  driven 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been 

driven 

3.  He  will  have  been  driven 


1.  We  shall  have  been  driven 

2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been 

driven 

3.  They  will  have  been  driven 


Imperative  Mood» 

PRESENT. 

Be  driven. 
Subjunctive  Mood, 

PRESENT. 

Jndefnite—J^  thou,  he,  &c. — be  driven. 
Perfect — I,  &c. — have  been  driven. 

PAST. 

Indefinite — I,  thou,  he,  &c. — were  driven. 
Progressive — I,  thou,  &c. — were  being  driven. 
Perfect — I,  &c. — had  been  driven. 

FUTURE. 

Indefinite — I,  thou,  &c. — should  be  driven. 
Perfect — I,  &c. — should  have  been  driven. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Indefinite— {^o)  be  driven.     Perfect— i^o)  have  been  driven. 

Participle. 
Indefinite — Being  driven.        Ptrfect—Mdiwing  been  driven. 

QUASI-AUXILIAEY  VERBS. 

9.  If  we  were  to  admit  the  Emphatic  and  the 

Potential  moods  into  the  conjugation  of  the  Verb, 

.  Do,  May,  and  Can  would  be  ranked  as  auxiliaries. 

To  Do. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.         Perfect  Participle. 

Do.  Did.  Done. 


144 


INFLECTION   OF  ADVERBS. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Tdo 

2.  Thou  doest  or  dost 

3.  He  does,  doeth,  or  doth 


Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1.  We  do 

2.  Ye  or  you  do 

3.  They  do 


1.  I  did 

2.  Thou  didst 

3.  He  did 


Past  Tense, 

1.  We  did 


2.  Ye  or  you  did 

3.  They  did 

Imperfect  Participle,  Doing. 

*  Do  *  makes  the  Emphatic  form  of  the  verb  : — I  do  adore 
him  ;  how  he  did  storm  !  ye  gods,  it  doth  amaze  me  ! 

It  is  the  form  of  Interrogation  :—Do  you  skate  ? 

It  is  the  Negative  form  : — You  do  not  look  so  fair  as  once 
you  did. 

It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  other  verbs,  a  pro-verb : — 
pronounce  the  speech  as  I  do  (for  *  pronounce  *) ;  he  acted 
better  than  I  could  have  done  (for  *  acted '). 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  may 

2.  Thou  mayest 

3.  He  may 


1.  I  might 

2.  Thou  mightest 

3.  He  might 


1.  I  can 

2.  Thou  canst 

3.  He  can 


May. 

Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

II.  We  may 
2.  Ye  or  you  may 
3.  They  may 

Past  Tense. 

1.  We  might 

2.  Ye  or  you  might 

3.  They  might 

Can. 

Present  Tense, 

1.  We  can 

2.  Ye  or  you  can 

3.  They  can 


MEANINGS   OF    "  MAY  "   AND    *' CAN.'*  145 


Fast  Tense. 


1.  I  could 

2.  Thou  cculdst 

3.  He  could 


1.  We  could 

2.  Ye  or  you  could 

3.  They  could 


*May'  expresses  permission;  *  Can,'  power.  *I  mat/ 
come 'is — I  am  permitted  to  come;  *I  can  leap' — I  am 
physically  able  to  leap ;  *  I  can  write  a  letter ' — I  have  the 
ability  or  skill  requisite  to  write  a  letter. 

It  is  wrong  to  say — *  I  can  fish  in  those  waters,'  *  I  can 
walk  that  way,'  when  the  meaning  is  that  I  have  permission. 
The  proper  verb  in  such  cases  is  *  ma3\' 

*May'  also  implies  possibility  or  concession  :— it  mai/ 
not  be  absolutely  lost ;  you  mai/  still  be  in  time. 

Placed  before  its  subject,  *  may  '  expresses  a  wish  : — may 

your  shadow  never  be  less  ;  way  peace  attend  you. 

Could  is  the  past  of  can  in  such  sentences  as  *  he  could 
not  come :  '  but  it  serves  also  to  express  present  power 
conditionally  :— he  could  come,  if  he  would. 

Might  is  more  rarely  the  past  of  '  may : '  its  principal  use 
is  to  express  past  permission  as  reported  in  the  present : — 
he  sent  word  that  I  miffht  come. 

10.  Must,  Ought,  and  Go,  are  also  used  in  forms 
that  may  be  regarded  as  auxiliary  inflections. 

Must,  which  is  invariable  for  Tense,  Number,  or  Person, 
means  necessity  in  various  forms. 

(1)  Compulsion  from  without: — Men  must  work;  we 
must  not  be  idle. 

(2.)  Uncontrollable  desire,  amounting  almost  to  physical 
necessity  : — she  must  weep,  or  she  will  die. 

13 


146  INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 

(3.)  Certainty  or  necessary  inference,  something  that  we 
can  count  on : — '  it  must  be  true  ;  I  bear  it  from  so  many 
diflferent  sources ;  *  'what  everybody  says  must  be  true.' 

Ought,  the  old  Past  Tense  of  the  Verb  *  owe,'  is  used  as 
a  present  Verb  to  signify  moral  obligation  : — we  ought  to 
do  justly  and  love  mercy. 

When  past  time  has  to  be  expressed,  *  ought '  is  joined  to 
a  perfect  infinitive  : — they  ought  to  have  come. 

Go  (preseiUy  *  go ; '  past,  *  went ; '  perfect  participle,  '  gone  ') 
is  used  to  express  an  intention: — I  am  going  to  drive;  I 
have  been  going  to  drive ;  I  was  going  to  drive ;  I  had 
been  going  to  drive  ,  &c. 

MEANINGS  OF  THE  TENSES. 

11.  The  Present  Indefinite  is  tlie  Universal 
Tense      It  expresses  what  is  true  at  all  times. 

The  diamond  t«  precious  ;  two  blacks  do  not  make  a  white  ; 
a  drowning  man  catches  at  straws. 

By  a  special  adverb,  or  by  the  context,  it  is  confined  to  a 
present  action  : — 'I  see  before  me  tlie  gladiator  lie.' 

12-  The  Progressive  tenses  express  the  con- 
tinuance of  an  action  for  some  time. 

I  am  reading  Milton ;  they  were  travelling  abroad. 

13.  The  Past  Indefinite  signifies  that  some  ac- 
tion came  to  an  end  in  the  Past.  It  is  the  Historical 
tense. 

Demosthenes  thundered  over  Greece  :  Newton  made  great 
discoveries. 

14.  The  Present  Perfect  expresses  an  action 
only  just  finished,  or  one  whose  results  continue. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS  OF  THE  NEW  CONJUGATION.  147 

The  train  has  arrived  ;  France  has  passed  through  several 

revolutions. 


IRREGULARITIES  IN  THE  CONJUGATION 
OF  VERBS. 

2^ew  Conjugation. 

15.  In  verbs  of  the  New  Conjugation  the  past 
tense  and  the  perfect  participle  are  formed  by 
adding  ed ;  but  in  many  cases  *  ed  *  passes  into  t, 
and  the  vowel  of  the  verb  is  shortened  or  other- 
wise changed. 

These  irregularities  in  the  New  Conjugation  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  Old  Conjugation.  The  addition  of  *t' 
is  a  decisive  mark  of  the  New  Conjugation. 

The  following  are  verba  of  the  New  Conjugation  : — 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense, 

Perfect  Participle, 

bend 

bent* 

bent 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blend 

blent* 

blent 

breed 

bred 

bred 

build 

built* 

built 

creep 

crept 

crept 

dream 

dreamt 

dreamt 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

gild 

gilt* 

gilt 

gird 

girt* 

girt 

have 

had 

had 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt 

knelt 

lay- 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leap 

leapt 

leapt 

learn 

learnt* 

learnt 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

148 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


^resent  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Perfect  Participle, 

light 

lit* 

lit 

make 

made 

made 

mean 

meant 

meant 

pen 

pent 

pent 

rend 

rent 

rent 

say 

said 

said 

send 

sent 

sent 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

speed 

sped 

sped 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spill 

spilt 

spilt 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

weep 

wept 

wept 

(wend) 

•went 

went 

Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  have  also  the  form  in  ed. 

Old  Conjugation. 

16.  The  Old,  or  Strong  (improperly  called  Irre- 
gular) Verbs  are  conjugated  by  modifying  the  root 
vowel  for  the  past  tense,  and  adding  en  for  the 
perfect  participle. 


arise 

arose 

arisen 

bear 

bore 

born  (and  borne) 

beget 

begat 

begotten 

bid 

bade  (or 

bid) 

bidden  (or  bid) 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke 

broken 

chide 

chode  (or  chid) 

chidden  (or  chid) 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave 

clove 

cloven 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

VERBS    OF   THE    OLD    CONJUGATION. 


149 


Piesent  Tense,  - 

Fast  Tense. 

Perfect  Tarticiple. 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

gotten  (or  got) 

give 

gave 

given 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hide 

hid 

hidden  (or  hid) 

know 

knew 

known 

lie 

lay 

lain 

ride 

rode    * 

ridden 

rise 

rose 

risen 

see 

saw 

,  seen 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shear 

shore 

shorn 

slay- 

slew 

slain 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stride 

strode  (or 

strid)       stridden 

strive 

strove 

striven 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

thrive 

throve 

thriven 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

tread 

trod 

trodden  (or  trod) 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

A  considerable  number,  while  changing  the  root  vowel, 
have  dropt  the  en  in  the  participle,  although  in  old  English 
manj'  of  them  still  possessed  that  termination.    Such  are  :— 

begin 

behold 

bind 

cling 

come 

dig 

fight 

find 

fling 

grind 

ring 


began 

begun 

beheld 

beheld 

bound 

bound 

clung 

clung 

came 

come 

dug 

dug 

fought 

fought 

found 

found 

flung 

flung 

ground 

ground 

rang 

rung 

150 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


^resent  Tense. 

Tast  Tense, 

Pei 

■fed  Tarticiple. 

run 

ran 

run 

shine 

shone 

shone 

sini^ 

sang 

sung 

slide 

slid 

slid  (or  slidden) 

filing 

slung 

slung 

Blink 

slunk 

slunk 

spin 

span  (or  spun) 

spun 

spit 

spat 

spit  (orspitten) 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

stink 

stank 

stunk 

string 

strung 

strung 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung  (or  swang) 

swung 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound 

wound 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

Some  form  the  participles  in  en  but   the  past  tense  in 
ed:— 


lade 

laded 

laden 

mow 

mowed 

mown 

rive 

rived 

riven 

saw 

sawed 

sawn 

show 

showed 

shown 

sow 

sowed 

sown 

strew 

etrewed 

strewn 

In  all  these  verba  the  participle  in  ed  is  used. 


17.  Some    verbs  both  modify  the  root  vowel, 
and  take  on  the  *  t '  of  the  new  conjugation :  — 

bring 
buy 
catch 
seek 


brought 

brought 

bought 

bought 

caught 

caught 

sought 

sought 

EXERCISE  ON  VERB  INFLECTIONS  GENERALLY.      151 

Present  Tense,  Fast  Tense.  Ferfect  Fariiciple, 
teach                         taught  taught 

think  thought  thought 

work  wrought  wrought 

18.  Some  neither  modify  the  root  vowel,  nor 
add  en.  These  are  •probably  verbs  of  the  new  con- 
jugation, in  which  the  ed  is  blended  with  the  final 
consonant : — 


beat 

beat 

beat 

bet 

bet 

bet 

burst 

burst 

burst 

cast 

cast 

cast 

Similarly — cut,  durst,  hit,  hurt,  let,  put,  rid,  set,  shed, 
shred,  shut,  slit,  split,  spread,  thrust,  wed. 

Exercise  17. 

Verb  Inflections  generally. 

1.  Translating  is  a  kind  of  drawing  after  the  life. 

2.  Weeping  may  endure  for  a  night,  but  joy  cometh  in 

the  morning. 

3.  But  thy  eternal  summer  shall  not  fade. 

4.  See  matter  next,  with  various  life  endued, 
Press  to  one  centre  still,  the  general  good. 

5.  He  was  predisposed  to  think  ill  of  all  causes  requiring 

many  words. 

6.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father. 

7.  Examine  whether  the  proposition  be  not  true  at  some 

times,  and  false  at  other  times, 

8.  You  have  not  the  heart  to  conceive,  the  understand- 

ing to  deter,  nor  the  hand  to  execute. 

9.  Tell  me,  my  soul,  can  this  be  death. 

10.  I  did  never  see  a  tempest  ihropping  fire. 


152  INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 

11.  They  shall  be  an  abhorring  to  all  flesh. 

12.  Mine  be  the  breezy  hill  that  skirts  the  down, 

13.  The  sense  of  danger  is  nover  perhaps  so  fully  appre- 

hended as  when  the  danger  has  been  overcome, 

14.  My  lambkins  around  me  would  oftentimes  play, 

15.  Then  rushed   the  steeds  to  battle  driven. 

16.  0  leave  mo  not  in  this  eternal  wo. 

For  when  thou  diest,  my  love,  I  know  not  where  to  go. 

17.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

18.  Wouldst  thou  demolish  a  driven  leaf? 

19.  O  hast  thou  forgotten  how  soon  we  must  sever  P 

20.  The  English  Government  gave  way  to  the  strenuous 

urgency  of  the  French  Emperor,  and  consented  to 
a  measure  which  ruined  the  pending  negotiations, 
and  generated  a  scries  of  events  loading  straight  to 
a  war  between  Russia  and  the  Western  Powers. 

21.  If  you  should  see  a  flock  of  pigeons  in  a  field  of  corn  ; 

and  if  (instead  of  each  picking  where  and  what  it 
liked,  taking  just  as  much  as  it  wanted,  and  no 
more)  you  should  see  ninety-nine  of  them  gather- 
ing all  they  got  into  a  heap  ;  reserving  nothing  for 
themselves  but  the  chaff"  and  the. refuse;  keeping 
this  heap  for  one,  and  that  the  weakest,  perhaps 
worst  pigeon  of  the  flock  ;  sitting  round,  and  look- 
ing on,  all  the  winter,  whilst  this  one  was  devour- 
ing, throwing  about,  and  wasting  it ;  and  if  a 
pigeon  more  hardy  or  hungry  than  the  rest, 
touched  a  grain  of  the  hoard,  all  the  others  in- 
stantly flying  upon  it,  and  tearing  it  to  pieces  :  if 
you  should  see  this,  you  would  see  nothing  more 
than  what  is  every  day  practised  and  established 
among  men. 

22.  Long  on  these  mouldering  bones  have  beat 
The  Winter's  snow,  the  Summer's  heat, 
The  drenching  dews,  and  driving  rain  ! 
Let  me,  let  me  sleep  ftgain. 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  INFLECTION  OF  THE  VERB.    153 

Questions. 

1.  Enumerate  the  inflections  of  the  Verb. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  diflference  of  Voice?     How  many 

*  voices  '  are  there  ?  Why  have  intransitive  verbs 
no  passive  voice?  To  signify  difierence  of  voice, 
what  is  done  besides  inflecting  the  verb  itself  .P 

3.  What  is  meant  by  difference  of  Mood  ?     How  many 

moods  are  there  ? 

4.  When  is  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive  Mood  ?     When  in 

the  Indicative  ?  When  in  the  Imperative  ?  How 
is  command  expressed  otherwise  than  by  a  verb  in 
the  Imperative  Mood  ": 

6.  What  is  the  function  of  a  verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mood  ? 
What  are  the  two  forms  of  the  Infinitive  ?  In 
what  respects  does  the  Infinitive  ai^ree  with  the 
Noun  ?     In  what  respect  do  they  differ  ? 

6.  What   are    the   two    Participles  ?      What   do   they 

severally  express  ?  Wherein  do  the  participles  of 
transitive  verbs  differ  from   those    of  intransitive 

verbs  ? 

7.  Distinguish  the  verbal  noun  in  *  ing  '  from  the  infini- 

tive of  the  same  form. 

8.  Distinguish  the  adjective  in  *  ing  '  from  the  participle. 

9  Distinguish  each  of  the  four  forms  in  *  ing  '  from  the 
three  others  one  by  one. 

10.  When  is  the  infinitive  form  called  a  Gerund  ? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  Tense?    How  is  the  verb  inflected 

for  tense  ? 

12.  How  is  the  verb   inflected  for  Person  ?    How  for 

Number  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  'conjugating*  a  verb  ?     What  is 

the  difference  between  the  Old  and  the  New 
Conjugations  ? 

14.  Inflect  the   verb   '  Trust  *  for  Tense,    Number,  and 

Person. 


154  INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 

16.  Inflect   the  verb    *  Shake*   for  Tense,   Number,  and 
Person. 

16.  What  is  the  use  of  the  Auxiliary  Verbs  ? 

17.  Inflect  the   several  auxiliary  Verbs.      Point  out  an 

inflection  peculiar  to  the  verb  *be.* 

18.  What  inflections   are   made  with  the   help   of  Be? 

What  with  Have?    What  with  Shall  ?     What 
with  Will  ? 

19.  What  are  the  original  meanings  of  *  Shall*  and  of 

*  Will?' 

20.  Give  all  the  inflections  of  the  verb,  with  and  without 

auxilifiries. 

21.  What  auxiliary  is  used  to  make  out  what  may  be 

called  the  Emphatic  Mood  ?     What  to  make  out 
the  Potential  ? 

22.  Inflect  the  verb  Do.     Enumerate  its  various  uses. 

23.  Inflect  May  and  Can.     State  the  exact  meaning  of 

each.     What  are  the  uses  of  Might  and  Could  ? 

24.  What  meanings  are  expressed  by  Must  and  Ought  ? 

25.  How  is  Go  used  with  a  verb  ? 

26.  Explain  the  meanings  of  the  tenses — Present  Inde- 

finite, Past  Indefinite,  Progressive,  Present  Perfect. 

27.  Do  verbs  with   the  past  tense  and  the   perfect  parti- 

ciple in  *  t '  belong  to  the  Old  or  to  the  New  Con- 
jugation?    Give  examples  of  such  verbs. 

28.  What  are  the  characteristic  inflections  in  verbs  of  the 

Old  Conjugation  ?     Give  examples. 

29.  Mention  verbs  that  change  the  root  vowel  in  the  past 

tense,  but  do  not  take  en  in  the  perfect  participle. 

30.  Mention  verbs  that  form  the  past  tense  in  ed  and  the 

perfect  participle  in  en, 

31.  What  verbs  have  a  double  inflection  ? 

32.  Mention  verbs  that  neither  modify  the  root  vowel  nor 

add  en.     Which  conjugation  do  these  belong  to  ? 


SYNTAX. 


Syntax  explains  the  mode  of  arranging  words 
in  Sentences. 

THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

1.  Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
Subject  and  the  Predicate  : — lead  is  heavy  ;  '  lead  ' 
(suhj,)  '  is  heavy  *  (precL). 

These  principal  divisions  of  the  sentence,  as  well  as  their 
enlargements  or  extensions  by  means  of  qualifying  words, 
have  already  been  partially  described  (p.  23). 

2.  Sentences  are  Simple,  Complex,  and  Com- 
pound. 

THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

3.  A  simple  sentence  contains  one  Subject,  and 
one  finite  Verb  : — Victoria  reigns  ;  a  wilful  man 
will  have  his  own  way. 

4.  The  Subject  is  usually  a  Noun,    alone  or 
•  with  adjuncts: — '  Victoria/  'a  wilful  man.* 


156  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

In  place  of  the  noun  as  subject  may  stand  a 
Pronoun  or  an  Infinitive  :—lie  drives,  to  give  is 
more  blessed  than  to  receive ;  parting  is  such 
sweet  sorrow. 

The  infinitive  in  such  cases  need  not  be  a  bare  verb  ;  it 
may  be  (1)  an  incomplete  verb  with  a  complement,  or  (2)  a 
transitive  verb  with  an  object ;  it  may  (3)  be  qualified  by 
adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases ;  and  (4)  it  may,  in  its  *  ing  * 
form  (p.  132),  take  a  pronominal  adjective  or  a  possessive 
adjunct. 

*To  appear  discouraged  is  the  way  to  become  so.* 

*To  see  her  is  to  love  her.* 

*  To  profess  regard,  while  inwardly  full  of  contempt,  is  the 
action  of  a  sycophant' 

*To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes,  to  be  wise  in  the  opinion  of 
the  world,  and  to  be  wise  in  the  sight  of  the  Creator,  are 
three  things  so  diflferent  as  rarely  to  coincide.' 

'  His  going  to  England  at  such  a  time,  must  have  been  a 
public  action.' 

*The  King's  persisting  in  such  designs  was  the  height  of 
folly.' 

5.  The  enlargement  of  the  noun  as  subject 
must  consist  of  an  adjective,  or  one  or  more  of  its 
substitutes  (p.  66). 

1.  An  Adjective : — a  wise  man  will  not  always 
study  ;  great  fear  fell  upon  all ;  guide  promisors 
are  slow  performers. 

2.  A  Possessive  Case  : — ilie  orator's  voice  was 
powerful. 

3.  A  Noun  in  Apposition: — Swift,  the  satirist^. 
was  a  cousin  of  Dry  den,  the  poet. 


ENLARGEMENTS    OF    THE    SUBJECT   NOUN.         157 

4.  A  phrase  -mado  up  of  a  preposifcion  and  a 
noun  : — the  band  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich. 

'The  sports  of  children  satisfy  the  child.' 

*  The  wave  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  murmured  pleasantly.' 

*  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush.' 

*  The  Reform  Bill  of  1867  was  called  a  leap  in  the  dark.* 

5.  A  Participle,  or  a  Participial  Phrase  (that 
is,  a  Participle  having  an  object,  or  qualified  by 
an  Adverb,  like  a  verb)  : — looking  eagerly  around^ 
he  spied  far  off  upon  the  plain. 

The  phrase  is  usually  co-ordinate,  but  it  may  be 
restrictive. 

*  Saul,  yet  breathing  out  threatnings  and  slaughter,  went 
unto  the  high  priest.'  Here  the  phrase  is  co-ordinate ;  that 
is,  it  does  not  restrict,  but  adds  to  what  is  signified  by  the 
subject  *  Suul.' 

*  What  man,  seeing  this,  and  having  human  feelings,  does 
not  blush  ?  '  Here  the  phrase  is  restrictive  :  it  restricts  the 
subject  *  man '  to  such  men  as  '  see  this  and  have  human 
feelings.' 

*  Reasoning  at  every  step  he  treads,  man  yet  mistakes  his 
way.' 

*  Verse,  in  the  finest  mould  of  fancy  cast, 
Was  lumber  in  an  age  so  void  of  taste.* 

6.  A  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these 
modes  : — 

*  The  dark  and  sullen  humour  of  the  time 
Judged  every  effort  of  the  muse  a  crime.' 

*Worn  out  by  age  and  long  confinement,  the  prisoner 
was  at  last  set  free.' 

14 


158  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

'The  laurel  wreath,  the  prize  of  happier  times,  will  not 
avail  thee  now.* 

*  Low  now  lies  Jourdan  the  Hoadsman's  own  head.* 

6.  The  Predicate  js  always  a  Verb,  alone  or 
with  adjuncts  : — '  reigns/  '  will  have  his  own  way.' 

When  the  Predicate  is  a  sincrle  Verb,  it  is  called 
simple  : — the  waves  roar  ;  the  Mghtmng  Jl ashes. 

When  the  Predicate  is  made  up  of  a  Verb  of 
incomplete  Predication  with  a  complement,  it  is 
called  complex: — the  streets  are  wet;  the  heavens 
grow  darker ;  the  confusion  becomes  terrific. 

The  complement  need  not  be  a  single  word  ;  it  may  be  a 
noun  or  an  infinitive  with  any  of  the  enlargements  enume- 
rated abjve  in  4  and  5 

7.  When  the  predicate  verb  is  transitive,  it  has 
an  Object. 

The  object  is  really  part  of  the  predicate  ;  but  inasmuch 
as  it  is  oftenest  a  noun,  and  is  open  to  all  the  equivalents 
and  enlargements  of  the  noun  as  subject,  it  is  for  conveni- 
ence' sake  taken  separately. 

8.  The  object  is  usually  a  noun,  alone  or  with 
adjuncts  : — the  Indian  hunts  buffaloes ;  the  w^nd 
shakes  the  hijh  house  on  the  cliff. 

In  place  of  the  noun  as  object,  may  stand  a 
pronoun  or  an  infinitive  : — come,  let  us  kill  him  ; 
learn  to  labour  and  to  wait ;  the  doctor  recom- 
mended ivalking. 

The  infinitive  need  not  be  a  bare  infinitive,  but  may  be 
enlarged  in  all  the  ways  above  enumerated.     (§  4.) 

*  Venture  to  be  wise.* 

*  I  purpose  coming  home  at  ten.* 


ENLARGEMENTS    OF   THE    PREDICATE    VERB.       159 

9.  The  enlargements  of  the  noun  as  object 

are  the  same  with  the  enlargements  of  the  noun 
as  subject : — an  Adjective,  a  Possessive,  an    Ap- 
position Noun,  a  Prepositional  Phrase,  a  Partici- 
pial Phrase,  or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of 
these. 

For  exRimple :— man* s  feeble  race  what  ills  await!  vex  not 
thou  the  poefs  mind  ;  in  such  a  cause  I  grant  an  English 
poet^s  privilege  to  rant ;  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilder- 
ness. 

The  noun  may  take  such  enlargements  wherever  it 
occurs  ;  whether  as  subject,  as  object,  as  complement  of  an 
incomplete  verb,  or  as  part  of  a  phrase. 

10.  The  enlargements  of  the  Verb,  apart 
from  the  object,  are  adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  : 
Iser  rolls  rapidli/  ;  the  army  fled  in  a  ^anic  ;  he 
pla^^ed  the  tyrant  ivitlwut  remorse. 

The  Aiverbial  Phrase  may  be  : — 

1.  A  Noun  : — he  slept  an  hour ;  wait  a  moment ; 
he  leaps  a  yard. 

2.  A  Preposition  ancf  "Noun  : — you  lived  without 
virtue  ;  you  shall  die  without  repentance  ,-  we  should 
profit  by  experience  ;  Ascham  taught  Latin  to  Queen 
Elizabeth;  he  was  charged  mth  treason. 

3.  A  noun  qualified  by  some  adjunct : — he  rested 
a  few  minutes ;  the  ball  was  carried  a  thousand 
yards ;  he  struck  his  antagonist  a  heavy  blow ;  they 
came  here  a  few  days  ago. 

4.  A  Participle  or  a  Participial  Phrase : — he 
advanced  trembling ;  they  came  back  exulting  over 
their  victory ;  toiling^  rejoicing,  sorrowing,  onward 
through  life  he  goes. 


IGO  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

In  such  sentences  as — *  the  flight  cominj  on,  we  retraced 
our  steps,'  the  participial  phrase  is  said  to  be  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Absolute.  Other  examples  are  :— The  sick  woman  re- 
fusing to  drink,  one  of  the  servants  brought  in  the  bottle 
again  ;  the  flood  abating,  Noah  sent  a  dove  out  of  the  ark  ; 
the  leading  principles  being  well  impressed,  the  details  may 
be  left  to  the  student. 

In  such  sentences  as — *  He  was  wonderfuUj'  active,  con- 
sidering his  age^  where  the  participle  neither  refers  to  the 
subject  of  the  verb,  nor  has  a  subject  of  its  own,  it  is  said 
to  be  used  impersonally.  Other  examples  are  : — '  Granting 
what  you  say,  docs  it  answer  my  ar^^ument  ?  '  *  Allowing 
all  this,  there  is  still  something  to  bo  said  in  his  favour.' 
Only  a  few  participles,  such  as  *  granting,'  *  considering,' 
'allowing,'  are  used  in  this  way.  They  are  almost  prepo- 
s'tions,  like  *  notwithstanding,*  *  pending,*  and  *  during,* 
which  were  oiiginally  participles  (p.  93). 

Except  in  tbe?e  cnses,  a  participial  phrase  stamling  at  the 
begin tiing  of  a  Senteuce,  qualities  either  the  Subject  or  the 
Predicate  of  the  sentence.  This  is  not  always  atienOed  to. 
In  the  sentence — 'Meeting  him  the  other  day,  he  asked  me,* 
the  participial  phrase  is  de.signe(Lto  apply  to  "  me,"  but  from 
its  position  it  must  be  read  as  applying  to  "he."  Such  con- 
structions should  be  guarded  against. 

5.  An  Infinitive  or  a  Gerund  : — he  is  very  foolish 
to  take  such  a  tlihig  to  heart  (infinitive  with  prep.)  ; 
the  shepherd  was  bribed  to  ]jut  them  off  the  track 
(gerund). 

*  The  young  man  received  three  thousand  pounds  to  begin 
the  world  with ; '  *  he  extolled  his  wares  beyond  their  worth, 
to  make  them  go  off  the  better.' 

The  negative  not  is  considered  a  part  of  the  predicate 
rather  than  an  adverbial  enlargement  of  it. 


SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES.  .       161 

th:b  complex  sentence. 

11.  A  Complex  Sentence,  while  containinof  but 
one  principal  Subject  and  one  principal  Predicate, 
Las  two  or  more  finite  Verbs : — What  can't  bo 
cured  must  be  endured  ;  if  thy  heart  fail  thee,  do 
not  climb  at  all. 

The  part  containing  the  principal  Subject  and  Predicate 
is  called  the  Principal  Clause;  the  other  part,  the  Sub- 
ordinate Clause  or  Clauses: — 'do  not  climb  at  all'  f principal) f 
*  if  thy  heart  fail  thee  '  f subordinate). 

12.  A  subordinate  clause  stands  in  place  of  a 
Part  of  Speech. 

In  the  sentence— -*  that  the  man  has  abilities  is  not  to  be 
denied,'  the  clause  *  that  the  man  has  abilities  *  is  the 
Subject,  and  serves  the  function  of  a  Noun.  Such  clauses 
are  called  Noun  Clauses. 

In  the  sentence—*  the  man  that  brought  the  letter  is  at 
the  door,'  the  clause  *  that  brought  the  letter  '  qualifies  or 
restricts  *  man,'  and  so  serves  the  function  of  an  Adjective. 
Such  clauses  are  called  Adjective  Clauses. 

In  the  sentence — 'he  was  gone  before  I  arrived,'  the 
clause  *  before  I  arrived '  indicates  the  time  of  the  action, 
and  so  serves  the  function  of  an  Adverb.  Such  clauses  are 
called  Adverbial  Clauses. 

Clauses  are  thus  distinguished  into  Noun  Clauses,  Ad- 
jective Clauses,  and  Adverbial  Clauses,  according  to  the 
Part  of  Speech  that  they  represent. 

The  Noun  Clause. 
13.  The  N'oun  Clause  occupies  the  place  of  the 
Noun,  and  may  be  the  subject  or  the  object  of  the 
Principal  Clause  : — that  fortune  favours  the  hrave 


162  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

is  a  cheering  maxim  ;  I  heard    that  a   battle   had 
been  fought ;  I  have  said  ivhat  I  have  said. 

The  Noun  Clause  may  also,  like  the  noun,  be  used  to 
complete  a  predicate  : — the  result  was  thai  he  left  the  couutri/. 

14.  In  such  sentences  as — *  the  fact  that  marCs 
'powers  are  limited  is  not  sufficiently  recognized ' — 
the  noun  clause  is  in  apposition  to  the  noun  *  fact.* 

*  There  is  this  objection  to  the  scheme  that  in  a  short  time 
nobody  would  be  willing  to  pay.' 

In — *  it  is  hard  that  a  man  cannot  enjoy  the  fruits 
of  his  own  industry  * — the  noun  clause  is  in  apposi- 
tion to  *  it.' 

15.  The  words  used  to  introduce  noun  clauses 
are — that,  what,  when,  whence,  how,  why,  &c. 

AVe  know  what  we  are,  but  we  know  not  what  we  shall  be. 

Nobody  but  ourselves  knew  what  we  were  pursued  for. 

He  was  generally  master  of  what  he  undertook. 

Let  me  know  when  you  can  come. 

I  will  find  out  whence  you  derive  that  idea. 

How  far  I  have  succeeded^  is  for  you  to  judge. 

Why  he  left  so  suddenly^  we  could  never  understand. 

What  he  wants  in  knowledye,  he  supplies  by  self-confidence. 

*  What,*  *  when,*  &c.,  in  such  cases,  are  at  bottom  inter- 
rogatives. 

The  conjunction  *  that '  is  frequently  omitted 
before  a  noun  clause  standing  as  object : — I  said 
in  my  haste,  All  men  are  liars ;  tell  me  not  in 
mournful  numbers,  Life  is  bid  aii  empty  dream. 


CLAUSES    RESTRICTIVE    OR   CO-ORDINATE.  163 

The  Adjective  Clause. 

16.  When  a  clause  limits,  defines,  or  adds  to 
the  meaning  of  a  Noun,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  an 
Adjective  : — *  I  venerate  the  man  wliose  heart  is 
warm^^  (the  luarm-liearted  man),  *  thoughts  that 
breathe  and  words  tliat  hurn.^ 

An  Adjective  Clause  may  be  found  in  any  place 
of  the  sentence  where  a  Noun  may  occur  for  an 
Adjective  to  qualify. 

1.  With  the  subject: — happy  is  the  man  that  jindeth  wis- 
dom ;  every  plague  that  can  infest  society  is  found  there  ;  all 
the  vices  that  oppression  generates^  flourished  in  the  unhappy 
country. 

2.  With  the  object : — I  see  the  golden  helmet  that  shines 
far  off  like  flame;  teach  me  the  way  wherein  to  walk. 

Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 
Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime  ? 

3.  In  adverbial  adjuncts : — we  are  not  bound  by  promises 
that  have  been  extorted  by  violence ;  some  excuse  seems  ne- 
cessary for  the  pain  that  we  occasion  to  brutes  ;  what  can 
you  expect  from  a  man  that  has  not  talked  these  five  days  ; 
Lord  Riglan  toiled  at  the  desk  where  Wellington  wrote 
his  immortal  despatches. 

17-  Agreeably  to  the  distinction  between  restric- 
tive adjectives  and  co-ordinate  adjectives,  Ad- 
jective Clauses  may  be  restrictive,  or  they  may  be 
co-ordinate. 

For  introducing  restrictive  adjective  clauses,  the 
relative  that  and  its  equivalents  are  preferable  to 
*  who'   or  *  which  '  and  their  equivalents. 

*  The  man  that  brought  the  letter,*  is  preferable  to  *tho 
man  who  brought  the  letter,' 


164  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

*  All  the  vices  that  oppression  generates,*  is  preferable  to 
*  all  the  vices  which  oppression  generates.* 

For  introducing  co-ordinate  clauses,  the  proper 
relatives  are  who,  which,  and  their  equivalents. 

*  The  captain,  who  is  a  man  that  I  can  trust,  told  me  so 
yesterday.' 

*  The  mail-train,  which  usually  is  so  punctual,  was  late 
yesterday.'  To  use  *  that '  would  imply  that  there  are 
several  mail  trains,  and  that  one  of  them  is  specially  punc- 
tuuL 

The  Adverbial  Clause, 

18.  An  Adverbial  Clause  is  the  equivalent  of  an 
Adverb  : — meet  me  when  the  clock  strikes  one. 

Adverbial  clauses  may  be  divided  into  as  many 
classes  as  adverbs,  and,  like  them,  may  qualiiy 
verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs. 

1.  Place :  -Wherever  I  go,  I  meet  the  same  story  ;  where- 
nothing  can  be  dune,  the  less  said  the  better  ;  he  took  care 
to  place  himself  where  he  could  see  all  that  went  on. 

2.  Time:  —  People  shriek  when  they  see  others  in 
dancjer ;  he  left  before  the  news  arrived  ;  Nero  was 
fiddling  while  Rome  was  burning ;  I  will  do  it  as  often  as 
you  like ;  we  did  not  reach  home  till  the  sun  had  set ;  some 
men  are  disposed  to  grumble,  as  they  grow  old  ;  he  whistled 
as  he  went,  for  want  of  thought. 

3.  Degree :— He  is  withdrawing  his  thoughts,  as  far  as  he 
can,  from  the  present  world ;  she  is  older  than  she  looks  ; 
the  more  you  coax,  the  more  obstinate  will  he  become  ;  thcu 
good  old  man,  benevolent  as  wise. 

4.  Certainty  or  Uncertainty : — As  I  am  a  living  man, 
here  comes  my  uncle. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  165 

5.  Cause  or  Rea'"on  : — He  fled,  because  he  was  afraid  ;  as 
I  am  pressed  for  time,  I  can  say  no  more  at  present ;  we 
might  live  very  comfortably,  if  we  were  a  little  more  tolerant 
of  our  neighbours. 

6.  Manner  in  general : — I  live  as  I  did,  I  think  as  I  did, 
I  love  you  as  I  did ;  the  men  were  running  as  if  they  were 
mad. 

19.  The  Adverbial  Clause  is  contracted  by 
omitting  the  Verb,  or  by  changing  it  into  a  Par- 
ticiple. 

*  I  will  not  give  way  until  I  am  compelled  by  the  infir- 
mities of  age.*     *  I  am  '  may  be  omitted. 

*As  we  walked  by  the  side  of  the  river,  we  met  a  very 
strange  fellow.'     *  As  we  walked,'  may  be  made  *  walking.' 

THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 

20.  A  Compound  Sentence  contains  two  or 
more  Co-ordinate  Sentences  united: — *  Charles 
raised  the  sluice  and  let  out  the  water ;  '  'he  came 
and  he  saw,  but  be  did  not  conquer ;  *  'he  has 
nothing  to  lose,  and  therefore  nothing  to  fear.' 

Contracted  Sentences. 

21.  Compound  Sentences  are  contracted  by  not 
repeating  what  is  common  to  the  co-ordinate 
clauses  : — '  horses  are  used  for  riding,  and  (horses 
are  used)  for  driving  ;  *  '  he  was  courageous,  but  (he 
was)  not  prudent ;  '  *  neither  James  (is  responsible 
for  this)  nor  John  is  responsible  for  this,' 


1G6  ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES. 

EXAMPLES  OF  ANALYSIS. 
Simple  Sentences,    . 
In  analj'sing  Simple  Sentences  the  manner  of  proceeding 
is  as  follows  : — 

I.  Set  down  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

II.  Set  down  the  enlargement,  or  attributive  adjuncts  of 

the  subject. 

III.  Give  the  predicate  verb.      If  this  is  a  verb  of  incom- 

plete predication,  state  the  comjdement  also. 

IV.  When  the  predicate  is  a  transitive  verb,  state  the 
object. 

V.  Set  down  the  enlargement,  or  attributive  adjuncts  of 
the  object. 

VI.  Give  the  adverbial  adjuncts  of  the  predicate. 

In  a  sentence  given  for  analysis  simply,  the  parsing  for  parts 
of  speech  should  uot  be  carried  to  the  last  degree  of  minute- 
ness. It  is  well,  however,  to  distinguish  the  various  adjuncts  ; 
and  in  the  case  of  infinitive  subjects,  objects,  or  complements, 
to  mention  the  various  eulargemeuts  as  laid  down  in  the 
Grammar. 

22-  1.  Music's  golden  tongue 

Flattered  to  tears  this  aged  man  and  poor. 

I.  Subject y  '  tongue.' 
II.  Attributive  adjuncts      (  1.  '  Music'' s,*  possessive  case. 

of  subject  (  2.  *  goldeUf*  co-ordinate  adjective, 

III.  Predicate^  *  flattered.' 

IV.  Objectj  *  man.* 

•\T      4  44    1.  4-       J-      4  i  ^'  *  ihw,^  demonstrative  ad/. 

V.  Attributive adjuticts  i  o  <  ^  ;i  j  j-  i 
ofobiect  \  ^'  '^^^^  ^"^  P"^^»  co-ordinate 
-^     ''  (             adjectives. 


adjectives. 
tears,' 
predicate  \  effect. 


VI.  Adverbial  adjunct  of  (  ^  to  tears,'  adverbial    phrase  of 


23-  2.  Putting  themselves  in  order  of  battle, 
our  troops  calmly  awaited  the  charge  of  the 
enemy. 


EXAMPLES    OF   ANALYSIS. 


167 


T.  Subject f  'troops.* 

II.  Attributive  adjuncts 
of  subject 


III. 
IV. 


YI. 


Predicate^  *  awaited.' 
Object,  *  charge.* 

Attributive  adjuncts 
of  object 

Adverbial  adjunct  of  ( 
predicate  \ 


1.  *  putting  themselves  in  order 

of      battle,'      participial 
phrase,  co-ordinate. 

2.  *  Our,'  possessive  adj, 

1.  *thp,*  demonstrative  adj. 

2.  *  of  the  enemy,'  prepositional 

adjective  phrase. 

*  calmly,'  adverb  of  manner. 


24-  3.  The  fair  way  of  conducting  a  dispute  is 
to  exhibit  one  by  one  the  arguments  of  your 
opponents. 

I.   Subject f  *  way.* 

!1.  'The,'  demonUrative  adj. 
2.    *  fair,'  restrictive  adj. 
3.   *  of  conducting   a   dispute,' 
restrictive  adjective  phrase. 
Verb  of  incomplete  predication, 
'is.' 
[2.   Complement,   *to  exhibit  one 
by  one  the  arguments  of 
your    opponents  ; '  Infini- 
tive   enlarged    (1)    by   ad- 
verbial phrase,  (2)  by  object 
with  adjuncts. 


III.  Predicate 


25.  4.  Satan  is  with  great  art  described  by  Mil 
ton  as  owning  his  adversary  to  be  Almighty. 

I.  Subject,  *  Satan.' 
III.  Predicate,  '  is  described.* 


VI.  Adverbial  adjuncts 
of  predicate 


*  with   great  art,'  phrase  of 

manner. 
'by  Mihon,'  phrase  of  agency. 

*  as  owning  his  adversary  to 

be   Almighty,'  participial 
phrase. 


168  ANALYSIS   OF    SENTENCES. 

26-  5.  In  the  multitude  of  counsellors  there  is 
safety. 

T.   Subject^  *  safety.* 
III.  Fredicate  *i8'  (exists). 

/  1.  *  there,'  expletive  adverb. 
VI.  Adverbial  adjH7icts       12.  *  in  the   multitude   of   coiin- 
of  Predicate  \  sellors, '  phrase  of  place  (m«J- 

'  taphorical). 

27-  6.  What  did  you  come  here  for  ? 
I.  Subject^  *you.' 

ITT    P  •  d'    U  {^    Verb  of  incomplete  predication^  *did.* 

{2.  Complements^  coine.^ 
\1.  Adverbial  adjuncts       (  I' l^eve^  adverb  of  place 

of  predicate  -<  2,  *  for  what,     adverbial  phrase 

''  ^  (^  of  purpose. 

Complex  Sentences. 

These  are  to  be  analysed  in  the  first  instance  as  if  each 
subordinate  clause  were  a  single  word  or  phrase.  The  sub- 
ordinate clauses  are  then  to  be  analysed  separately. 

28.  1.  That  man  has  been  from   time  imme- 
morial a  right-handed  animal,  is  beyond  dispute. 
I.  Subject^  *  that  man  has  been  from  time  immemorial  a 
right-handed  animal,'  noun  clause .    (a) 

!1 .  Verb  of  incomplete  predication^  *  is.' 
2.  Complement,    *  beyond   dispute,'  pre- 
positional  adjective  phrase. 
Analysis  of  (a). 
I.  Subject,  *  man.* 

(  1.  Vet'bof  incomplete  predication, 'has  heen.* 
III.  Predicate      |  2.  Complement,  •  a  right-handed   animal,* 

(  noun  with  adjuncts. 

VI.  Adverbial  adjunct    of  predicate,    *  from     time     imme- 
morial,' phrase  of  time. 
The  conjunction  *that'  does  not  enter  into  the  construc- 
tion of  the  dependent  clause. 


EXAMPLES    OF   ANALYSIS.  169 

29.  2.  Mark,  now,  how  a  plain  tale  shall  put 
you  down, 

I.  Subject,  {*  you,^  understood), 
II r.    Indicate,  'mark.' 

IV.   Object,  *  how  a  plain  tale  shall  put  you  down,'  noun 

clause,   {a) 
VI.  Adverbial  adjunct  of  predicate ,  *  now,'  time. 
Analysis  of  {a). 
I.  Subject,  Uale.' 
II.  Attributive  adjuncts     (1.  *  a.' 

of  subject  I  2.  *  plain,'  restrictive  adj. 

Ill    Predicate  ^  ^'  ^'^^'^ 'Z  ^^^'''"^i^^^^^ -?^*'^'<^^^^^^^'*>  *  shall.* 

\  2.  Complement f  *  put  down.' 
IV.   Object,  *  you.* 

30.  3.  It  is  in  vain  that  you  seek  to  escape. 

I.  Subject,  *it.' 
II.  Noun    clause    in  ap-     (    *  that  you  seek  to  escape.' 
position  to  subject     \  (aj 

I  1.    Verb  of  incomplete  predication,  *  is.* 
III.   Predicate  <  2.    Complement,    *  in  vain,'  prepositional 

\  adjective  phrase. 

Analysis  of  (a). 
I.  Subject,  '  you.' 
III.  Predicate,  *  seek.' 
IV.  Object,  *  to  escape,'  infinitive  as  noun. 

[Or,  *  to  escape  '  may  be  analysed  as  a  gerundial  adverbial 
phrase,  if  we  take  *  seek  *  as  an  intransitive  verb — *  seek,  look 
this  way  and  that,  with  a  view  to  escapin^.^^ 

31.  4.  Health,  which  is  precious  to  all,  is  invalu- 
able to  the  poor. 

I.  Subject,  '  Health.' 

II.  Attributive  adjunct    ( '  which  is  precious  to  all,'  co-ordi- 

of  subject  \          nate  adjective  clause,    {a) 

TTT     T>'fJ'    f            \^'  y*^'*'^  ^f  ^^^(^(^^^^P^^^^  P''^'<^^^<^(i^on,  ^  is.* 

(2.  Complement,  *  invaluable.' 

VI.  Adverbial  adjunct  (  *  to  the   poor,'  phrase    of  direc- 

of  predicate  \          Hon. 

15 


170  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Analysis  of  (a). 

I.  Subject,  'which.* 

III.  Predicate         i  \'  ^''^  f  v^comphte  predication,  *  is.' 

i  2.   Complement,  *  precious. 

IV.  Adverbial  adjunct       f..       i,,     ,  /.,.      .. 

of  predicate  \      *^  *^'»  ^^''*''  ""f  direction. 

32-  5.  No  scene  of  life  but  has  contributed 
Much  to  remember. 

I.  Subject,  *  scene. ' 

'  1 .   *  no,*  indefinite  numeral. 

I  2.   *of  life,'     restrictive  adjective 

II.  Attributive  adjuncts  J  phrase, 
ofsubj.ct           S^  3.  *but'  (that  not)  *ha8  contri- 
buted much  to  remember,* 
restrictive  adjective  clause,  {a\ 

III.  Predicate  ['is'  (exists),  understood']. 
Analysis  of  (a). 
I.   Subject,   'that.* 
III.    Predicate,  '  has  not  contributed.* 
'IV.   Object,  *  much.* 

V.  Attributive  adjunct  of  object,  *  to  remember,'  gerundial 
adjective  phrase. 

33.  6.  The  tares  of  despotism  were  sown  while 
men  slept. 

I.  Subject,  *  tares.* 

II.  Attributive  adjuncts    1 1.  *The.* 

of  subject  \  2.  *  of  despotism, '  adjective  phrase. 
III.   Predicate,  *  were  sown.' 

IV.  Adverbial  adjunct  f  *  while  men  slept,*  adverbial  clause 

of  predicate  \              of  time'.  \a) 

Analysis  of  {a). 
I.  Subject,  *  men.' 

III.  Predicate,  *  slept.* 

VI.  Adverbial  adjimct  of  predicate,  *  while.' 

34-  7-  What  he  spake,  though  it  lacked  form  a 
little 
Was  not  like  madness. 


EXAMPLES  OF  ANALYSIS.  171 

I.  Subject^  *  What  he  spake,'  noun  clause,   {a) 

1.  Verb  of  incomplete  predication^   *  was 
not.' 
III.  Predicate        <(  2.  Complenunt  *like  madness,'   adJcUive 
iclth   qualifijing    adverbial  phrase — 
*  {(o)  madness.' 

VI.  Adverbial  adjunct       i  '  though  it  lacked  form  a  little,' 
of  predicate  \         adverbial  clause,  {b) 

Analysis  of  {a), 
I.   Subject,  *  he.' 
II r.  Predicate^  'spake.* 
IV.  Object,  'what.' 

Analysis  of  fb). 
I.  Subject,  '  it '  (what  he  spake). 
III.  Predicate,  ^lnokQ^L.'' 
IV.    Object,  *  form.' 

VI.  Adverbial  adjunct       i '  a  little,'  elliptical  for  *  to  a  little 
of  predicate  \  degree,'  phrase  of  degree. . 

35-  8-  There  is  a  sweetness  in  good  verse  which 
tickles  even  while  it  hurts. 
I.  Subject,  'sweetness.' 

.1.  'a.' 

II.  MtribuHveAcljmcts     \  ^^  '^^'"1?  ^''='^'f  •7.'^"  ^]'."^'' 

of '^  b'p  t                N  hurts,     restrictAve   adjective 

J       -^                     J  clause  ('  which '  improperly 

'  used  for  '  that ')  faj. 

I   1.  Verb  of  incomplete  predication y 

I  'is  * 

III.  Predicate  \  n    n     '  i        *   i  -  j  > 

j  2.  Complementy  '  in  good  verse, 

\  prepositional  adjective  phrase. 

VI.  Adverbial  adjuncts  of  predicate ^  *  there,'  expletive. 

Analysis  of  (a). 

I.   Subject,  'which.' 

III.  Predicate,  '  tickles.' 

VI.  Adverbial  adjunoU     (  '^^<'"  "''"?/*  '>"'"*!''  "fi''^''?^ 
of  predicate  elauseofhtne  (a^)  qualified  by 

-^  -^  \  adverb  of  degree. 

Analysis  of  {cfi). 
I.  Subject,  'it.' 
III.   Predicate,  ^  hxxvi^.'* 
VI.  Adverbial  adjunct  of  predicate,  '  while.' 


172  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

I^ote  on  *  while.'— The   adverbial   conjunctions,  *  while,* 

*  where,'  *  when,'  *  as,'  &c.,  are  consideied  parts  of  a  sub- 
ordinate sentence,  being  adverbial  quulifiuations  of  the 
predicate.  Other  conjunctions,  'if,'  'though,'  'because,' 
'since'  (of  Reason),  &c.,  are  not  looked  upon  as  parts  of 
the  subordinate  sentence,  but  merely  as  introductory  words. 

Vompotmd  Sentences. 

The  Co-oriinato  Sentences  are  to  be  analysed  separately 
and  the  link  of  connection  indicated.  These  separate  sen- 
tences, when  complex,  are  to  be  analysed  as  such. 

36-  !•  She  moves  a  goddess,  and  she  looks  a 
queen. 

[A]  *  She  moves  a  goddess ; '  [B]  'she  looks  a  queen.* 

*  And  *  is  a  cumulative  conjj^nction,  adding  B  to  A. 

37.  2.  They  asked  him  whether  he  was  guilty, 
bat  he  refused  to  answer. 

[A  +  a]  *  They  asked  him  whether  he  was  guilty  ; '  [B] 

*  lie  refused  to  answer.' 

*  But'  is  an  adversative  conjunction,  putting  B  in  oppo- 
sition to  A  -|-  a- 

Contracted  Sentences. 

In  these  the  omitted  parts  must  be  expressed  at  full 
length,  after  which  the  analysis  proceeds  as  above. 

38-  A  man  of  real  information  becomes  a  centre 
of  opinion,  and  therefore  of  action. 

[A]  A  man  of  real  information  becomes  a  centre  of 
opinion  [Bj  therefore  (a  man  of  real  information  becomes 
a  centre)  of  action. 


EXERCISE  ON  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.    173 

Exercise  18. 

1.  Amid  the  roses  fierce  Repentance  rears 
Her  snaky  crest. 

2.  Man,  the  subject  of  Politics,  can  speak. 

3.  Home  they  brought  her  warrior  dead. 

4.  His  purpose  is  to  avert  bad  consequences. 

5.  It  fell  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day 

The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  his  shores. 

6.  Now  leave  complaini ag,  and  begin  your  tea. 

7.  He  loved   planting  and  building,   and  brought  in  a 

politer  way  of  living. 

8.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall 

And  dowers  to  wither  at  the  North  Wind'a^reath. 

9.  It  was  a  shame  for  them  to  mar  their  complexions 

with  long  lying  abed. 

10.  Now,  therefore,  let  thy  servant  abide  in  place  of  the 

lad,  a  bondman  to  my  lord. 

11.  With  droll  sobriety  they  raised  a  smile 

At  Folly's  cost,  themselves  unmoved  the  while. 

12.  Collecting,    classifying,    contrasting,     and   weighing 

facts,  are  processes  made  use  of  in  teaching  method. 

13.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 

14.  The  rose  that  all  are  praising  is  not  the  rose  for  me. 

15.  All  controversies  that  can  never  end,  had  better  per- 

haps never  begin. 

16.  He  that  fights  and  runs  away 
]Miiy  live  to  fight  another  day. 

17.  Meanwhile  opinion  gilds  with  varying  rays 
Those  painted  clouds  that  beautify  our  days. 

18.  How  France  was  saved  from  this  humiliation,  and  how 

the  great  alliance  was  preserved,  will  now  be  seen. 

19.  She  loved  me  for  the  dangers  I  had  passed. 

20.  The  forms  of  a  free  constitution  surviving,  when  its 

st  irit    is    extinct,    would    perpetuate    slavery    by 
rendering  it  more  concealed  and  secure. 


174  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

21.  Disquieted   by  imaginary   alarms,  insensible  t')    tb^^ 

real  danger  tbat  awaits  them,  people  are  taui^ht  to 
court  that  servitude  which  will  be  a  source  of 
misery  to  themselves  and  to  posterity. 

22.  It  is  only  by  the  fresh  feelings  of  the  heart  tbat  man- 

kind can  be  very  powerfully  aCfected. 

23.  Long  and  various  experience  seems  to  have  convinced 

the  nations  of  Europe  that  nothing  but  a  standing 
army  can  oppose  a  standing  army. 

24.  In  working  well,  if  travail  you  sustain, 
Into  the  wind  shall  lightly  pass  the  pain, 
But  of  the  deed  the  glory  shall  remain. 

25.  To  prove  my  assertion  we  have  but  to  observe,  what 

^nerally  passes  between  the  winner  and  the  loser. 

2G.  Go  into  Turkey,  where  the  Pachas  will  tell  you  that 
the  Turkish  government  is  the  most  perfect  in  the 
world. 

27.  All  that  be  does  is  to  distribute  what  others  produce ; 

which  is  the  least  part  of  the  business. 

28.  And  even  while  fashion's  brightest  arts  decoy, 
The  heart,  distrusting,  asks  if  this  be  joy. 

29.  Those  poets  who  owe  their  best  fame  to  his  skill 
Shall  still  be  his  flatterers,  go  where  he  will. 

30.  The  heart  of  man  craves  for  sympathy,  atid  each  of 

us  seeks  a  recognition  of  his  talents  and  his 
labours. 

31.  The  Dutch  florist  that  sells  tulip  bulbs  for  their  weight 

in  gold,  laughs  at  the  antiquary  that  pays  a  great 
price  for  a  rusty  lamp. 

32.  Here  Cumberland  lies,  having  acted  his  parts, 
The  Terence  of  England,  the  mender  of  hearts; 
A  flattering  painter,  who  made  it  his  care 

To  draw  men  as  they  ought  to  be,  not  as  they  are, 

33.  Nor  second  he  that  rode  sublime 
Upon  the  seraph-wings  of  Ecstasy, 
The  secrets  of  the  abyss  to  spy. 


QUESTIONS    ON   ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  175 

34.  When  civil  dudgeon  first  grew,  high 

And  men  fell  out,  they  knew  not  why; 
U'hen  did  Sir  Knight  abandon  dwelling, 
And  out  he  rode  a-colonelling. 

Questions. 

1.  Into  what  two  principal  parts  is  the  sentence  analysed? 

2.  How  are  sentences  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  a  Simple  sentence  ? 

4.  What  part  of  speech  is  the  type  of  the  Subject  ?  What 

other  parts  of  speech  may  stand  in  its  place?  What 
different  forms  of  infinitive  phrase  may  stand  as 
subject  ? 

5.  How  may  the  noun  subject  be  enlarged  ?    Enumerate 

and  exemplify  the  different  forms  of  the  Adjuncts 
of  the  subject  in  the  Simple  Sentence. 

6.  What  part  of  speech  is  the  type  of  the  Predicate? 

What  names  are  given  to  different  forms  of  the 
predicate  verb  ? 

7.  What  part  of  speech  is  the  type  of  the  Object  ?   How 

is  it  varied?     How  enlarged? 

8.  How  is  the   predicate   verb   enlarged  ?    Enumerate 

and  exemplify  different  forms  of  Adverbial  Phrase. 

9.  What  view  is  taken  of  the  negative   *not'  in   the 

analysis  of  the  sentence  ? 

10.  What   is   meant   by  a   Complex    Sentence?    What 

names  are  given  to  its  component  clauses  ?  What 
is  the  function  of  the  Subordinate  Clauses  ? 

11.  Define  the  Noun  Clause.     What  places  may  it  occupy 

in  the  sentence  ? 

12.  What  words  are  used  to  introduce  noun  clauses  ? 

13.  Explain  the   Adjective    Clause.     Show  by  examples 

what  various  positions  it  may  have  in  the  sentence. 

14.  Point  out  and  exemplify  the  difference  between  Re- 

strictive and  Co-ordinate  Clauses.  What  is  the 
proper  relative  for  each  kind  of  clause  ? 


176  CONCORD. 

15.  Explain  the  force  of  the  relative  clause  in  the  sen- 

tence—' He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear.* 

16.  What  function  is  served  by   the  Adverbial  Clause  ? 

Exemplify  the  various  classes  of  adverbial  clauses  ? 

17.  How  is  the  adverbial  clause  contracted  ? 

18.  Distinguish  the  Compound  Sentence  from  the  Com- 
plex. 

19.  How  are  compound  sentences  contracted  ? 

CONCORD. 

1.  When  two  connected  words  are  of  the  same 
Number,  Gender,  Person,  or  Tense,  they  are  said 
to  agree  with  one  another,  or  to  be  in  Concord. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  infl-ction  of  the  verb,  the  form 
is  changed  according  to  the  Number  and  the  Person  of  the 
subject: — •  they  walk — he  walk*;  *I  walk— thou  wdlkest.* 
The  verb  *  walk '  is  said  to  agree  with,  to  be  in  concord  with 
the  subject,  whether  *they,'  'he,*  *  I,*  or  *thou.' 

When  two  different  parts  of  speech  are  applied  to  the 
same  subject,  their  inflections,  in  s  >  far  as  they  are  inflec- 
ted, must  correspond,  or  be  in  concord.  We  must 
not  use  the  feminine  pronoun  'she,'  when  we  refer  to  a 
man;  nor  *  he,*  when  we  refer  to  a  woman:  we  must  not 
use  *  they '  when  we  refer  to  a  singular  noun ;  nor  *  it  * 
when  the  noun  referred  to  is  plural. 

CONCORD  OF  SUBJECT  AND  YEKB. 

2.  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  Subject  in 
Number  and  in  Person,  and  the  subject  of  the 
Verb  (if  a  Pronoun)  is  in  the  Nominative  Case: — 
your  motives  icere  good,  but  your  conduct  was 
wrong  ;  you  ivere  quite  right ;  I  am  to  blame. 


COLLECTIVE  NOUN  AND  VERB.        177 

The  following  are  incorrect  expressions  : — says  T  ;  up  we 
goes  to  the  table ;  his  pulse  are  too  quick ;  what  have 
become  of  our  friends  ?  she  dare  not  resist ;  do  as  thou 
list ;  them  that  despise  me  shall  be  lightly  esteemed  ;  here 
is  the  soldiers ;  there  was  all  the  officers  cursing  a  Dutch 
general. 

Errors  are  sometimes  made  when  a  prominent  noun  of 
different  number  comes  between  the  subject  and  the  verb  : 
— the  derivation  of  the  words  are  uncertain  ;  one  of  the 
mareschals  were  slain. 

'  An  appearance  of  morals  and  religion  are  useful  in 
society.' — (Junius.) 

*  The  progress  still  made  by  the  Saxons,  prove  that  the 
advantage  was  commonly  on  their  side.' — (Hume. ) 
^Our  present  English  language,  in  which  the  speech  of 
the  victors  and  the  vanquished  have  been  so  happily  blended. 
—  {Ivanhoe,) 

Another  misleading  case  is  when  the  subject  is  qualified 
by  two  adjectives: — '  a  handsome  and  polished  exterior  are 
much  in  his  favour;'  'his  kind  and  even  temper  endear  him 
to  all  that  know  him.' 

3.  A  Collective  IN'oun,  though  Singular  in  form, 
is  not  always  followed  by  a  singular  verb. 

When  the  group  denoted  by  the  collective  noun  is  spoken 
of  as  a  whole,  the  verb  is  singular  : — the  array  is  in  good 
condition  ;  the  regiment  is  under  the  command  of  Colonel 
White ;  the  clan  is  powerful ;  the  jury  -was  divided  into 
two  sections ;   the  club  meets  on  Tuesday. 

But  when  the  members  of  the  group  or  collection  are 
spoken  of  individually,  the  verb  is  plural  :— the  93rd  are 
very  fine  men  ;  the  clan  Macdonald  hate  the  clan  Campbell ; 


178  CONCORD. 

the  jury  were  unanimous  ;  the  gentry  ivere  not  los8  refractory 
than  the  clergy  ;  the  public  are  requested  not  to  write  on 
these  walls. 

4.  When  the  form  of  a  noun  is  plural,  and  the 
meaning  singular,  a  singular  verb  is  generally  pre- 
ferred. 

*  Nine-tenths  of  a  man's  happiness  depends  upon  other 
people  ;  *  *  this  news  about  my  children  decides  me  ; '  '  Mathe- 
matics is  a  branch  of  study  in  every  school ; '  *'  three  multi- 
plied by  four  makes  twelve.' 

The  title  of  a  book  though  plural  in  form,  takes  a  singular 
verb  when  it  stands  for  the  book  as  a  whole: — 'Temple's 
Observations  on  the  Uhited  Provinces  is  a  very  tho  ou  ;h  work.* 

Similarly  with  the  title  of  a  song : — *  Green  Leaves  is  a 
pretty  song.' 

5.  If  the  subject  of  a  sentence  consists  of  two 
Nouns  or  Pronouns  united  by  the  conjunction 
*  and,'  the  Verb  must  be  in  the  plural : — David  and 
Jonathan  were  bosom  friends  j  silence  and  twilight 
creep  hand  in  hand. 

Exceptions.  (1.)  When  two  nouns  are  names  for  tho 
same  subject.     In  this  case  the  subject  is  really  singular. 

*  My  trusty  counsellor  and  friend  has  warned  me  to  havo 
no  dealings  with  such  men.* 

(2.)  When  two  names  almost  synonymous  are  used  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis: — 'secrecy  and  silence  is  what  they 
chiefly  desire;  *  *  pride  and  jealousy  there  was  in  his  eye.* 

*Nor  was  the  manner  and  address  of  the  king  calculated 
to  cure  these  prejudices,* 


SINGULAR    SUBJECTS    UNITED    B-Y    "AND."        179 

*  The  pomp  and  state  of  a  court  was  emulated  in  the 
castles  of  the  great  nobles.' 

(3.)  When  the  two  things  named  make  a  single  com- 
pound subject,  such  as  *  wheel  and  axle, '  *  bread  and  butter,* 

*  needle  and  thread. ' 

*The  composition  and  resolution  of  forces'  (viewed  as 
one  process)  *  was  applied  by  Newton.' 

*  When,  in  King  Lear,  the  height  and  depth  and  breadth 
of  human  passion  is  revealed  to  us.' 

6.  When  two  or  more  Singular  Nouns  are 
joined  by  alternative' conjunctions,  the  verb  is 
Singular. 

Either  your  brother  or  Thomas  is  to  be  there. 

7.  When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  a  Relative 
Pronoun,  the  antecedent  shows  the  number  of  the 
verb. 

A  man  that  hopes  to  be  great ;  men  that  hope  to  be  great. 

CONCORD  OF  -NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE. 

8.  The    Demonstrative    Adjectives    '  this  *    and 

*  that,'   being   inflected    for  number,  must    agree 
with  their  noun  : — this  tree,  these  hands. 

9.  The    Distributive   Adjectives    *  each  *     and 

*  every  '   are  joined  to  a  Singular   noun  ; — e very- 
friend  is  expected  to  help. 

These  words,  when  applied  to  one  Gender,  take  a  Singular 
pronoun; — every  man  for  himself;  each  sister  for  herself. 
When  both  sexes  are  implied,  there  is  a  difficulty.     If  we 


180  GOVERNMENT. 

.  say  *  each  for  himself,'  the  concord  of  gender  is  violated ; 
if  we  say  *  each  for  themselves,*  the  concord  of  gender  is 
saved,  and  the  concord  of  number  infringed.  Both  forms 
are  in  use. 

CONCORD  OF  TENSES. 

10.  The  Sabordiiiate  Tenses  aud  the  Principal 
Tense  must  not  conflict. 

*  He  affinned  that  he  will  go  to-morrow;  *  *  if  this  should 
be  done,  I  will  at  once  withdraw  ;*  *he  hid  himself,  lest  he 
shallhoi  impressed ;'  — and  such  like,  are  wrong  constructions ; 
but  errors  are  seldom  made  in  cases  so  simple. 

The  use  of  the  present  indefinite  to  express  a  proposition 
true;  for  all  time,  is  an  apparent  exception.  It  is  right  to 
say — *  Galileo  maintaiaed  that  the  earth  moves^'  and  wrong 
to  say  *  moved. ' 

The  perfect  infinitive  is  often  misapplied.  It  should  not 
be  used  except  after  a  present  tense.  To  use  it  after  a  past 
tense,  is  bad  syntax.  *  Hj  trusted  to  have  vanquished  his 
enemies,'  should  be — '  he  trusted  to  vanquish  his  enemies.' 
The  following  is  also  wrong  : — 

I  thought  thy  bride-bed  to  have  deck'd,  sweet  maid. 
And  not  to  have  strew' d  thy  grave. 

Errors  are  sometimes  committed  in  making  up  the  tenses 
with  auxiliaries:  we  meet  with  such  mistakes  as — *  having 
broke,'  'had  broke,'  W  'having  broken/  *  liad  broken/  and 
'  being  returned'  for  '  having  returned.' 

G  0  V  E  R  ]Sr  M  E  N  T. 

1.  Government  is  the  regulating  of  the  case  of 
a  Noun  or  Pronoun. 

We  must  say — we  captured  him  (not  he) ;  go  with  them 
(not  ihei/). 


POSSESSIVE    CASE    BEFORE    INFINITIVE.  181 

The  Noun  has  only  one  case,  the  possessive ;  and  only  a 
few  nouns  can  be  used  in  the  possessive.*  Those  that  are  so 
used,  such  as  proper  names,  are  followed  by  the  noun  for  the 
thing  possessed  : — Mary's  fan. 

2.  A  T^oun  or  Pronoun  coming  before  an  infini- 
tive in  *  ing '  to  indicate  the  subject  of  the  verb,  is 
put  in  the  possessive  : — *  John's  advising  me  to 
accept  the  offer,  was  unexpected  ;  '  *  the  reason  of 
his  being  there,  I  did  not  know.' 

From  confusing  the  infinitive  with  the  participle,  writers 
often  infringe  the  rule.  We  often  find  such  false  construc- 
tions as  *  John  advising  me,'  and  'the  reason  of  him  being 
there.' 

3.  Transitive  verbs  (with  their  Infinitives,  Parti- 
ciples, and  Gerunds),  and  Prepositions,  govern  the 
Objective  case. 

This  rule  appears  only  in  Pronouns: — They  brw  me  ad- 
dress her^  while  bringing  him  to  accompany  them;  Peter, 
whom  you  know,  did  that ;  after  us. 

4.  The  Verb  *  be '  has  the  same  case  after  it  as 
before  it : — it  is  he  ;  we  knew  it  to  be  her. 

This  rule  is  not  universally  observed.  *  It  is  me,'  *  it  was 
not  me,'  'it  was  him,'  *  it  was  her,'  are  often  used  in  con- 
versation, and  sometimes  in  books  by  good  writers. 

0  E D  E  R    OF   W  0  E D  S. 

In  a   sentence,    the  different  Parts    of  Speech 
are  placed  in  a  certain  order. 
16 


182  ORDER   OF   WORDS. 

Subject  and  Verb. 

1.  The  Subject  precedes  the  Verb  : — the  road 
winds  ;  time  passes  quickly. 

There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  adverb  *  there' 
often  introduces  an  inverted  sentence  : — there  is  a  way  ; 
there  came  a  traveller.  Other  adverbs,  and  adverbial 
phrases,  lead  to  a  similar  inversion  : — then  followed  a  great 
multitude  ;  at  no  time  left  he  the  house. 

Verb  and  Object, 

2'  The  Transitive  Verb  precedes  its  object : — 
We  hoisted  the  flag. 

There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule  also,  especially  in 
poetry  :—m^  ye  trusted;  him  the  Almighty  Power  hurled 
headlong ;  what  none  has  dared,  thou  hast  done ;  whom 
none  has  advised,  thou  hast  persuaded. 

Noun  and  Adjective, 

3.  The  Adjective  precedes  the  Noun  : — good 
advice. 

When  the  adjective  is  accompanied  by  qualifying  phrases, 
it  is  often  placed  after  the  noun  :— a  person  in  every  respect 
trustworthy. 

Bepetition  of  the  Article.  When  two  nouns  apply  to  the 
same  subject,  the  article  is  given  only  once  :  the  statesman 
and  general  (one  person).  When  the  two  nouns  express 
diflferent  subjects,  each  has  the  article  :  the  statesman  and 
the  general  (two  persons). 

Fronoun  and  Antecedent, 

4.  Every  pronoun  should  have  a  distinct  refer- 
ence. 


PLACING    OF    "only**  AND    "NOT."  183 

It  has  been  seen  (Pronoun  7,  8)  that  the  word  referred 
to  by  the  pronoun  usually  goes  before  (antecedent),  but  in 
certain  cases  cornea  after. 

We  should  avoid  using  a  pronoun  with  more  than  one 
reference  on  the  same  sentence.  *  It/  from  the  variety  of 
its  references,  is  often  abused  in  this  way.  What  has  the 
child  done  with  my  book?  It  is  provoking  that  it  will 
always  run  away  with  «^.* 

,    Placing  of  the  Adverb, 

5.  The  Adverb  usually  follows  the  verb  : — He 
works  steadily  ;  bring  the  man.  quickly. 

When  the  verb  is  Intransitive,  the  adverb  follows  im- 
mediately after  :  when  the  verb  is  Transitive,  it  follows  the 
object.     There  are  many  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

Tlacing  of  ^only*  and  *  not.^ — '  Only'  qualifies  the  word 
or  phrase  immediately  after  it.  *  He  07tlt/  sends  in  his 
account  twice  a-year,'  means  that  he  sends  in  his  account, 
and  takes  no  other  step — does  not  call,  does  not  write  press- 
ing letters.  *  He  sends  in  his  account  only  twice  a-year,' 
means  that  he  sends  in  his  account  twice  a-year,  and  no 
oftener.  *  Only '  is  often  misplaced.  *  I  am  only  anxious 
to  see  him,'  should  be,  *  I  am  anxious  only  to  see  him.' 

*  Not '  is  often  misplaced  in  constructions  with  *  not— 
but  only,'  *  not  only — but,'  *  not  only — but  also.'  He  did 
not  wish  to  punish,  but  only  to  warn,'  should  be  —  *  he  wished 
not  to  punish,  but  only  to  warn.'  The  verb  applies  to  both 
the  contrasted  expressions,  and  should  stand  clear  at  the 
beginning. 

On  similar  grounds— *  he  not  only  was  just  but  generous,' 
should  be,  *  he  was  not  only  just,  but  generous.' 

*He  not  only  resolved  to  send  a  message,  but  also  to  go 


184  SYNTAX.    . 

thither  in  person/  should  be,  *  he  resolved  not  only  to  send, 
&c. 

Exercise  19. 
Errors  in  Syntax, 

1.  Both  their  nature,  tempers,  qualities,  actions,  and  way 

of  living   was  made   up   of  innumerable   contra- 
dictions. 

2.  Scotland  and  thee  did  in  each  other  live. 

3.  O  Thou  for  ever  present  in  my  way. 
Who  all  my  motives  and  my  toils  survey. 

4.  I  had  wrote  to  him  the  day  before. 

5.  The  reason   of  him  attendini^  their  meetings,  were 

simply  that  he  wishes  to  obstruct  them. 

6.  The  rise  and  fall  of  nations  are  an  interesting  study. 

7.  Great  piins   were  taken  to  have  avoided  such   a 
calamity. 

8.  The  mind  and  body  remains  invincible. 

9.  The  fact  of  me  going  away  could  not  signify. 

10.  Nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay. 

11.  She*fell  a-laughing,  like  one  out  of  their  right  senses. 

12.  There  are  a  class  of  men  who  never  looks  before  their 

•noses. 

13.  I,  your  friend,  advises  you  not  to  trust  either  of  the 

three  partners. 

14.  Between  you  and  I,  there  was  a  variety  of  causes  at 

work. 

15.  The  only  real  hindrance  to  it  being  attainable  is  the 

wonderful  imprudent  character  of  the  people. 

16.  Though  four- fifths  of  the  population  is   Celtic  and 

Roman  Catholic,  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  pro- 
perty belong  to  Protestants. 


/ 


ERRORS    IN    SYNTAX.  185 

17.  No  other  river  such  fine  salmon  feed. 

18.  The  books  were  lain  upon  the  table. 

19.  He  is  one  of  the  best  and  wisest  men  who  h  is  ever 

lived. 

20.  He  trusted  to  have  equalled  the  Most  High. 

21.  Every  tub  must  stand  upon  their  own  bottom. 

22.  That  is  the  man  whom  I  perceived  was  in  fault. 

23.  You  are  the  first  that  rears  your  head. 

24.  His  Elements  of  Political  Economy  were  very  favour- 

ably reviewed.  • 

25.  The  play  is  most  pernicious  slow. 

26.  The  tenantry  has  resolved  to  celebrate  the  marriage 

of  its  young  proprietor  with  all  the  honours. 

27.  All  human  race  would  fain  be  wits. 

28.  Each  make  as  much  profit  as  they  can. 

29.  Sir   William   Temple   had    a   good   shape,  and  was 

extreme  active. 

30.  His  honourable  and  amiable  disposition  were  praised 

by  everybody. 

31.  Shattered   by  the  fever,  his  friends  left  him  to  his  "^^^ 

fate. 

32.  I  am  afraid  of  the  man  dying  before  a  doctor  can 

come. 

33.  It  was  very  characteristic  of  Bacon  to  say  that  by 

indignities  men  came  to  dignities. 

34.  If  we  could  only  hold  our  tongues,  everything  will 

succeed  to  a  wish. 

35.  His  wages  are   not  sufficient  to   support  a  growing 

family. 

36.  Have   you  seen  the   minister  and   schoolmaster  the 

day? 

37.  That  bliss  which  only  centres  in  the  mind. 


186  SYNTAX. 

38.  We  would  be  greatly  mistaken  if  wo  suppose  wealth 

and  rank  exempt  from  care  and  toil. 

39.  Hoping  to  hear   from   you  soon,  believe  me  yours 

truly. 

40.  A  plague  to  his  parents  at  home,  the  master  could 

almost  make  nothing  of  him  at  school. 

41.  Nine-tenths  of  the  miseries   and    vices  of  mankind 

proceed  from  idleness. 

42.  He  complained  th  it  ho  had  suffered  him  only  to  use 

his  horse  for  one  day. 

43.*  Before  Hell's  gate  there  sat 

On  either  side  a  formidable  shape. 

44.   He  not  only  endeavoured  to  do  his  duty,  but  to  make 
others  do  theirs. 

"    45.  Some  persons  can  only  distinguish  black,  white,  and 
gray. 

46.  This  does  not  so  much  seem  to  be  owing  to  the  want 

of  physical   power,  but  rather  to  the  absence  of 
vehemence. 

47.  The  attempt  may  succeed  in  this  case,  but  it  is  not 

often  that  it  is  safe  to  make  it. 


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